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The concept of satellite position fixing commenced with the launch of the first Sputnik satellite by the USSR in October 1957. This was rapidl...

1. Introduction ‘ Least squares ’ is a powerful statistical technique that may be used for ‘ adjusting ’ or estimating the coordinates in...

Satellite positioning A 1960s surveying text book consulted in 1980 would reveal little change in twenty years. That is not true today...

1. Background A traverse is a form of control survey used in a wide variety of engineering and property surveys. Essentially, traverse...

Surveying is the art and science of taking field measurements on or near the surface of the Earth. Survey field measurements include horiz...

Different difficulties are faced during leveling which makes the surveying process difficult to carry. Types of difficulties and their metho...

Azimuths Figure :1 Azimuths Azimuths are horizontal angles observed clockwise from any reference meridian. In plane surveying, azimut...

Modern surveying involves use of sophisticated scientific instruments. mathematical methods and computational techniques. In writing this b...

Surveying may be defined as the science of determining the position, in three dimensions, of natural and man-made features on or beneath ...

Surveying is the science and art of making the measurements necessary to determine the relative positions of points above, on, or beneath th...

SURVEY   1. Survey can be defined briefly as the science of measurement with the object of increasing our knowledge about the shape of eart...