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Since the start of the formal approaches and procedures for carrying out the structural design, there have been many developments in the underlying principles and the implicit and explicit design objectives. Starting with putting limits in the allowable (working) stresses in various materials to achieve indirect safety factors, the design process slowly evolved within last few decades to more explicit consideration of different load and capacity factors. The recognition of the difference between brittle and ductile failure, and the introduction of capacity-based design approaches, led to the more comprehensive performance design using high level of analysis sophistication, and more explicit linkage between demand and performance. The most recent emphasis is on risk-based design, and a more integrated and holistic approach within the framework of consequence-based engineering. This section discusses a brief account of the progression of these design approaches and their impact on the cost, performance, and the final objective of public safety.

Structural design is the process of proportioning the structure to safely resist the applied forces and load effects in the most resource-effective and friendly manner. The term “friendly” refers to the aspect of design dealing with environmental friendliness, sustainability, ease of construction, and usability that are not explicit part of the strength consideration. Resources refer to the use of material, labor, time, and other consumables that are used to construct and maintain the structure. Ideally, the role of structural design is straight forward. It is the transformation of the effects of various environmental and man-made actions (including constraints on materials, dimensions and cost etc.) into the appropriate material specifications, structural member sizes, and arrangements (Fig. 1).

The basic objective is to produce a structure capable of resisting all applied loads without failure and excessive deformations during its anticipated life. The very first output of any engineering design process is a description of what is to be manufactured or built, what materials are to be used, what construction techniques are to be employed, and an account of all necessary specifications as well as dimensions (which are usually presented in the form of drawings). The second output is a rational justification or explanation of the design proposal developed based on either full-scale tests, experiments on small physical models, or the mathematical solution of detailed analytical models representing the behavior of real structures.

The process of structural design has passed through a long and still continuous phase of improvements, modifications, and breakthroughs in its various research areas. The structural analysis and design philosophies for new and existing buildings have a fascinating history. Perhaps, the first ever achievement in the history of structural design was the “confidence” by virtue of which early builders were able to convince themselves that the resulting structure could, indeed, be built and perform the intended function for the entirety of its intended life. Hence, the job of the very first engineers can be thought of as “to create the confidence to start building”. Over the course of the history, various scientists, mathematicians, and natural philosophers presented revolutionary ideas which resulted in improved understanding of structures and built environment. With the developments in different areas of practical sciences, the task of building design was gradually divided among more and more professionals depending upon aesthetic considerations, intended functions, materials, optimum utilization of space, lighting, ventilation, and acoustic preferences. The visual appearance, sense of space, and function (or the architecture) became a distinct concern during the 15th and 16th centuries. About a century later, designers first began to think about the load bearing aspects of structures in terms of self-weight and other sources of expected loading. Thinking separately about the role of individual materials and resulting structures grew during the late 17th and 18th centuries following Galileo’s work. The idea that the aesthetics should be given proper importance independent of the materials and load-bearing characteristics of the structure prevailed during the late 19th and the early 20th centuries.

Table 1 presents a brief timeline of some of the major developments which led to modern techniques and methodologies for analyzing and designing structures.

It is worth noting that historically an understanding of how structures work was never a phenomenon that required detailed knowledge of mathematical procedures and laws of mechanics. A common misconception is that various new structural forms and shapes were first devised by mathematicians (and experts of geometry) and later taken up by builders and engineers. In fact, the opposite is true, with perhaps just one exception, i.e., the hyperbolic paraboloid (whose structural properties were discovered in 1930s). In the last few centuries, artists, sculptors, and builders have displayed a remarkable understanding and skill of converting materials into structures (some of which are still standing today remarking the testimony of their expertise).

Choosing the right calculator for your needs can be a tough job. But you can compare some of the best calculators in the industry with our brief but useful list below. The features and number of functions vary from calculator to calculator. Some have around a hundred functions while others have several hundred. Some calculators have bright, well lit screens, while others are more difficult to see but users favor the style. Depending upon your needs, you’re sure to find the calculator for you on this list.

1. Texas Instruments TI-84 Plus CE Plum Graphing Calculator

This graphing calculator has a very high resolution backlit display. It’s likely the highest quality display available on any scientific calculator. The calculator is lightweight and available in plum, red, denim, blueberry, gray, gold, silver and white. The battery may get weak quickly if you use it a lot. A huge benefit is the fast processor. It comes with a user guide and double sided cable. The only complaint that some users have is that the font is too small. It’s great for high school students taking advanced math. If you need to easily graph complicated expressions, this is the calculator for you.

2. Casio fx-9750GII Graphing Calculator

Create bar graphs and pie charts with ease. The screen is easy to read in a number of different lighting situations. Enjoy a high speed RAM CPU and USB connectivity, making it easy to share files. Some users have said that it’s not the easiest to program. However, the functions are easy to understand. It comes with a well organized user manual.

3. HP HP50G 50g Graphing Calculator

This calculator has 30% more screen space than the previous version and most other scientific calculators for that matter. It has a better keypad than the last model and is quipped with an SD card slot. You can choose between RPN, Algebraic, and Textbook data entry. Not that this graphing calculator uses a lot of battery power. The advantages of this calculator are the high range of functions and the ease of programmability.

4. Casio fx-9860 GII (Engineersdaily's recommendation)

This versatile programmable calculator is very suir´table for complex jobs especially in exams where lots of calculations are needed under time pressure. Formulae can also be programmed easily. It also features a USB connection and comes handy with a cable to connect to your computer. More specs can be found at the link above.

The Hansen Summer Institute on Leadership and International Cooperation is an exciting international program funded by a generous grant from the Fred J. Hansen Foundation. Six Hansen Summer Institutes took place in San Diego, California between 2007 and 2015. The Institute provides a unique University-based leadership experience and program in international cooperation. For three weeks, young American men and women joined students from a variety of developing countries and regions of social strife. Between then and now, Hansen Alumni have remained in contact via a variety of social networking sites and projects funded by the Hansen Foundation. We are happy to announce the Hansen Summer Institute will host its next group of young leaders in July at the University of San Diego School of Leadership and Education Sciences (SOLES).

A primary goal of the program focuses on creating an international community of young scholars who will use their summer experience as a foundation for creating lasting friendships and acquiring common practical understanding of a more peaceful future. Program elements will involve classroom instruction and hands-on training in the latest techniques of conflict resolution, mediation, and inter-cultural management. Classroom training will complement local excursions to San Diego historical attractions and cultural events including a fourth of July parade, a Padres baseball game, and a harbor cruise. 

Hansen Summer Institute training aims to provide participants a "leadership toolbox" for resolving conflict and building a better future for their respective countries.

Eligibility Requirements:

Application deadline: 09 January, 2018

Apply here

Are you a civil engineer looking to start a business to earn extra money? If YES, here are 50 best small business ideas for civil engineers in 2018.

The construction industry is singlehandedly responsible for the enhancement of infrastructures worldwide. A country or city’s development can be linked to the role civil engineers play in terms of construction of sky scrapers, shopping malls, office complexes and a host of others.

If you are a civil engineer and would love to dabble into business, the following are 50 business ideas you can select from.

1. Begin a construction company

For civil engineers, this is one of the most common businesses to begin. You can carry out the registration of your construction company in order to start. Becoming successful in this business, aside from knowing how to deliver quality work, would require remarkable networking skills with individuals who have the capacity to provide you with remarkable construction projects.

Starting a construction company if you have the required know-how can be a remarkable business venture.

2. Start a cement manufacturing plant

This is another business that a civil engineer can dabble into. Although starting this business may require a bit of capital, selling the cement would not be too difficult especially if your rates are highly competitive. Asides that, you can link up with other civil engineers and sell to them whenever they have projects to carry out.

The profitability of this business is quite high and you stand the chance of making lots of profit especially in areas where buildings are just beginning to spring up.

3. Start manufacturing bricks and blocks

This is another great venture for civil engineers. It does not require that much startup capital, and as long as there are buildings under construction, with the appropriate connection and network, this could be a very thriving business. The construction industry is the major user of blocks so ensure you make connections with these industries to get the best out of your business venture.

4. Start Selling Cement

This is another profitable venture for civil engineers. Before going into this business, it is best to look for a location where this business is bound to thrive. The best location for this kind of business is one that is not so far from construction and development sites or other related areas.

5. Start Manufacturing Roofing Materials

This is another great venture a civil engineer can try out. In construction, a building is incomplete without a roof, this means that the profitability of this business is on a very large scale. This business is a bit capital intensive but if you have the capacity, you would be able to make great profit in no time.

6. Begin Gathers Rental

This is another great business idea which is certain to generate revenue. Gathers are utilized during plastering, roofing, painting among a host of others in high rise buildings and story buildings.

If you have the required capital to produce gathers as well as adequate space to safeguard them, then this is a business that you should put into consideration. The running cost of this business is low and profit is huge if you are able to appeal to construction companies that will rent your gathers frequently.

7. Begin a Nail Production Business

Nails are a necessity for construction. If you are in search of a business venture that would bring you enough funds, then a great business to begin is nail production. Your knowledge as a civil engineer would help you know the kind of nails in demand and which to keep in stock. The market for nails is quite large and if you have a great marketing strategy, you can break into the market easily.

8. Provide bricklaying services

As a civil engineer, another great way of making cash is to provide bricklaying services. You can top off your skills by going for adequate training. If you have the capital, you can hire additional hands while you look for the contracts and supervise the work being carried out.

9. Embark on the Supply of Sand and Gravel

Another business which is highly profitable that civil engineers can begin is the supply of sharp sand and gravel. There is hardly any job that has to do with building in which these two items are not required. Your skills as a civil engineer can provide you with the basic knowledge of selecting sand of great quality. Additionally, all you would require to begin this business is a truck, tipper and the needed permits.

10. Begin a construction cleaning business

Another great business which is highly profitable that can be carried out by a civil engineer has to do with the cleaning of sites before and after construction. Most construction companies always carry out cleaning on any construction site before they begin. This is also done after construction as well. This business is highly profitable as new constructions keep going on every time.

11. Start a tiles and marbles manufacturing business

This is another great business venture as most houses being built of recent always make use of tiles and marbles for flooring. This means the market for this business is very large and even though it is quite capital intensive, you can be sure of making profit in a short while if you have the ability to market your products. The great thing about this business is that it can be done in an international level.

12. Start fixing interlocking slabs and Tiles

This is another available small business opportunity. It has to do with the fixing of marbles, paving stones and tiles. It is a great way to make some cash as a civil engineer, and just a little amount of training is required.

It is ideal to have the proper network so as to thrive in this business and make profit in little or no time.

13. Begin the sale of Tractors

Tractors are crucial in the development of buildings. It is a major equipment used for construction so the market base for them is quite large. Although you may not have the needed funds to compete with the main producers of these machines, you can make plans with a tractor manufacturer you desire so they can give you the opportunity to become a merchant for their products.

14. Begin a business of fixing POP

This is yet another means to make funds as a civil engineer. POPs are placed on buildings to make them beautiful. If you want to begin this business, all you require is a little training on the appropriate ways to fix POP. Once that is done, you can begin by making the appropriate connections that would ensure you make as much profit as possible from constant construction businesses.

15. Begin a building wiring business

Without the appropriate electrical wiring, a building is not complete. If you are a civil engineer that has learnt about buildings, you can add this to your portfolio and learn how to set up the wiring in buildings. If you are very efficient, this is a very profitable business especially if you have the appropriate network.

16. Start producing gates and doors

This is another great business a civil engineer can thrive in. It has to do with the manufacturing of gates and doors. A building is not finished without these two items. You can also become specialized and start manufacturing security doors. The market for these kinds of doors is large and it is a very profitable business.

17. Begin a business of Burglary Fixing

Although this business is usually meant for welders, if you have the appropriate capital to invest, you can get a professional welder to come work for you. You also have a choice of undergoing the required training. To thrive in this business, ensure you have the appropriate network so as to get constant business and revenue.

18. Start selling construction equipment

As a civil engineer, you can begin the sale of construction equipment. Some of these equipment like pans, shovels and mixers can easily be gotten in any construction shop. All you require to begin this business is the appropriate funding to stock up your shop with construction materials for sale.

19. Start a Borehole Drilling Business

In most areas of the world, construction companies always look for their own source of water during a project. At times they may hire the services of a tanker driver to aid them in the delivery of water. If the local government gives you the authority to do so, you can drill your own borehole yourself. So if you have an interest in starting this business as a civil engineer in countries like Nigeria where you can drill boreholes as you desire, you can go into the business and enjoy lots of profit.

20. Provide land survey services

This is another profitable business venture to dabble into. Before a building is constructed, there has to be a survey of the land and because of this, the market for land survey services is large. Before going into this business, ensure you have the appropriate network and decide your target market. If you do great jobs, you are bound to get recommendations from your clients.

21. Begin a Logging Business

This is another great business for civil engineers who want to go into entrepreneurship. The logging industry is a very massive one in most countries. They are recognized to be the main individuals when it has to do with home construction. Most homes in Canada and U.S.A were constructed using logs, hence selling logs is a great idea.

Beginning a logging business may require a bit of capital but it is a profitable venture. It requires much capital because of the amount of funds needed to buy equipment for logging and getting the required permits and licences. Nonetheless, it is still a great business to venture into.

22. Lawn Care Services

This is another good business for an entrepreneur especially those that love construction related businesses. Interestingly, this is one of the few businesses an entrepreneur can make it big without necessarily working so hard. Major requirements for a successful career here is high level of creativity as well as willingness to go the extra mile. You must be willing to convince clients that you are capable and able to deliver great jobs.

23. Wall Paper Fixing

This is of course another construction related business for civil engineers. With wallpapers that are produced in 3D format, apartments are made more beautiful and highly presentable. This business remains one of the simple, easy to go into and lucrative business in the construction related businesses. Successful business people in this line are good marketers of their services, and they have strong networking skills.

24. Plumbing Business

It is a well known fact that a house is not complete without full plumbing services. There is a scarcity of plumbing experts in communities in recent times. It is important to note that you can make lots of money here. You can work alone or with few employees in this business.

25. Landscaping Services

Landscaping is another business opportunity that offers great financial reward. This business entails environment beautification. Landscape architecture entails a number of processes that include the planning, designing, management, preservation as well as rehabilitation of the land and landed properties. In this business, you will need to work very hard before financial rewards can result. The civil engineer must learn to be skilled in negotiation and be able to convince prospective clients that he or she can deliver quality work.

26. Haulage Services

Haulage business is another making money venture within the construction industry for civil engineers. In the real sense of it, haulage business handles the movement of materials needed on construction sites such as gravel, cement, blocks, rods, sand, construction equipment as well as other stuffs. This shows that haulage business is a cool way of making money in the construction industry. Target these materials sellers and building contractors and make your money from them.

27. Construction Equipment Rental Business

Construction equipment rental business is a great business venture for civil engineers. Any serious civil engineer willing to start a business may consider this a lucrative option.

Construction equipment include tractors, concrete mixers, cranes, gathers etc and they are always needed on construction sites. This business is relatively capital intensive as those construction equipment cost a fortune especially the likes of cranes and tractors. Endeavor to network with stakeholders in the construction industry and ensure your office location is strategic enough to attract customers.

28. Property Development Business

This is a wonderful construction related business with lots of profit opportunities. By division, it is categorized as a construction business and it has the capacity to enrich serious entrepreneurs within a short time. This business encompasses all activities that include land purchase, rent or lease and selling, leasing or renting out of furnished properties.

In essence, it is the duty of developers to turn ideas into real properties. This means that developers acquire land, finance real estate deals and then conclude the building projects. After this, they offer the property for sale, lease, rent as well as manage properties on client’s behalf.

29. Safety Gadgets Production

Of course safety gadgets are construction related materials needed during construction. They include Safety Helmets, C – Caution, Safety Boots and other safety materials.

This is another business that a civil engineer can go into. Since work cannot be done except these gadgets are worn, it means that the market is large. Safety gadgets like helmets, safety boots, protective goggles, overalls, safety vest (bib) etc. are important and needed in large quantities. So if you are thinking of starting this business, note that you are required to work with the standard and specifications issued by the regulatory bodies within the industry.

30. Interior Decoration Services

This is a construction related business as well as a home improvement service. Interior decoration entails the making of offices and homes more beautiful, as well as giving buildings a facelift. Activities may include things like apartment color selection, lighting selection, blind selection and several other activities required to show forth the beauty of a house. This is a very lucrative business that is demanded every now and then.

31. Aluminum Products Manufacturing

Lots of products can be produced from aluminium and some of these products include windows, roofs, doors, pans etc. If you seek a construction related business to go into, you may consider venturing into the production of aluminium products.

This is thriving and lucrative business. Before you begin this business, endeavour to carry out a thorough business research so as to spot the sellable aluminium products and to build a workable marketing concept for the product.

32. Furniture Polishing Business

Furniture polishing services is another leading business that a serious civil engineer who is ready to make money should consider. There are thousands of people who are willing and ready to pay for this service out there. Furniture like cupboard, cabins, wardrobe, tables, shelves as well as any wooden product can come back to live and shine out its beauty if well polished.

33. Water Closet and Ceramic Wares Production

Washing hand basins as well as water closets remain part of essentials in any building. A building without a toilet is regarded as not complete. This stresses the high demand for water closets and other ceramic wares. So you may consider starting a manufacturing company for these products.

34. Home Painting Business

Home painting is another highly profitable business within the sphere of construction related businesses. Any serious civil engineer with the appropriate training can make lots of money from this area. Home painting is a way to beautify the house after construction. This shows that great money making opportunities abound in this business venture.

35. Floor Cleaning Services

Floors irrespective of the type such as tiles, terrazzo, marbles, wooden floors etc all require cleaning and stain removal services. This is another thriving and lucrative business that any focused civil engineer who wants to make money from construction related businesses can consider.

Although this business also falls under the cleaning industry, it is best to note that professionalism in general cleaning services is required. To make it real big here, please go through training before setting out or simply learn from a successful person in the business.

36. Overhead and Underground Tanks Supply Business

This is another profitable business venture in that any ambitious civil engineer can delve into and make lots of money.

Both overhead and underground tanks are used for water storage in buildings as well as on construction sites. It is difficult to find a building without at least one overhead tank or an underground tank. This business doesn’t require technical skills to initiate and run. Your startup capital and registration are all you need for the business. You also need to build good business relationships with stakeholders in the construction industry.

37. Iron rods Supply

Iron rods are part of the major building materials that are used in construction. Iron rods are primarily used for re-enforcement, railings, as well as for burglary proofs. This therefore shows its large market demand in the construction industry.

Both technical knowledge and experience are not required before you can go into this business. Startup capital and business registration are the major things you need to kick start the business while networking with stakeholders in construction sites is needed to grow the business.

38. Setting up Air conditioners

This business is highly lucrative amidst businesses in the construction value chain. Any aspiring entrepreneur can successfully begin the installation of electric water heaters and air conditions in buildings. There is a great demand for this business most especially if you are a good salesperson. Endeavour to work and network with site supervisors and other stakeholders in the industry. They are your best business leverage.

39. Ceiling Production

Recently, people now make use of POP, but the sale of other ceiling materials is not affected by the advent of POP. Ceiling materials such as asbestos, wood as well as other ceiling materials are still in use in the construction industry. This is a great business opportunity for civil engineers. The only challenge is pushing your products into the market.

40. Bitumen and Tar Supply

Road construction and maintenance are some of the key components of civil engineering. Two major raw materials used when constructing roads are tar and bitumen. This shows that there is a great demand for tar and bitumen. One of the businesses that is profitable and thriving is the supply of tar and bitumen. You can network your business with the ministry of works or public works department (PWD) in your country and make valuable profit.

41. Construction Consultant

Normally before any construction contract is awarded to contractors, a construction consultant is usually called upon to look into the entire project.

Construction consultants look into the construction plans and other related matters and then offer advice to individuals, government and corporate organizations so as to be properly guided before going into the construction job proper.

If you possess the appropriate qualifications as well as lots of experience in the construction industry as a civil engineer, starting a construction consulting business is not a bad idea. If you deliver quality insight, you are sure to get long term contracts with both corporate bodies and the government of your country.

42. Maintenance of Roofs

Roof maintenance and restoration is a lucrative and thriving business in the construction industry. Every civil engineer can initiate this business with moderate training.

Generally, roofs wear and tear as a result of exposure to hash climatic conditions. This is why roofs leak within a period of time. Roof maintenance and restoration companies do fix leakages in roofs and as well replace worn out roofs with new ones. This business can be classified into post construction maintenance business and is highly lucrative.

43. Part-Time Lessons on Civil Engineering

Civil engineers can teach part-time lessons to aspiring civil engineers. The customer base includes students in universities and other civil engineers who desire to learn more in their field. This is a great idea for a civil engineer with great skill in the field.

44. Blogging

This is another well-known business venture world-wide. A civil engineer can startup a blog and write on articles that are related to civil engineering. With time and consistency, the appropriate crowd would be directed to the site and money can be made off adverts especially if your blog is known to be a reliable one.

45. E-book writer

As a civil engineer who is well versed in his/her field, you can begin writing eBooks to make profit. You do not have to be an exceptional writer as what is required is your idea. You can get the assistance of an editor to help you in making your eBook more professional. If you have great insights, you are going to attract clients and make money off the sales of your eBook.

46. Freelance Civil engineer

This is another great business venture for civil engineers. You can offer your services on a freelance basis and get clients from anywhere. If you always do great jobs, your clients would spread the word and with time your customer base would increase tremendously. This is a great business if you really know what you are doing.

47. Construction of roads

As a civil engineer, you can network with the government and get contracts to construct roads. This is a great source of income if you know the right people to link up with. Additionally, if your work is great, you stand the chance of making lots of cash and getting future government contracts.

48. Offer childproof services

This is another business which has a high demand. You can offer to make homes child proof for parents by installing equipment round the home that would keep children safe.

49. Chimney repairs

A lot of homes and companies still make use of chimneys. They are prone to damages and a good business venture is offering repair services for these chimneys. There is a lot of money to be made as a civil engineer if you go into cleaning and repair of chimneys.

50. Construction estimation service

As a civil engineer with the appropriate experience, this can be a great business venture. You render services by offering companies or individuals who want to build homes estimation services. You are called in as an expert to assist them in determining the possible amount they would spend so as to prevent them from spending excessive amount of cash. This is a great business if you are great at what you do.

Screenshot from the short film 'slaughterbots' showing people flee during the rampage of AI based automated killing robots

The video taps into what could happen if AI killing machines became politicized tools of war -- the exact thing that tech leaders around the world fear most for our future.

Artificial intelligence is to the point where it barely needs humans to code itself. The applications seem endless. Automated services, generating content, basic care and services can all be greatly improved with the introduction of AI.

But what about weaponry?

This short film called Slaugherbots serves as a horrific prediction of what could happen should automated weaponry overrun the need for protection in our world.

[WARNING: The following video does contain violence and images of injury and even death. Viewer discretion is advised.]

For those who support AI-based weaponry, it's an object without feelings that can do the work of a military while saving officers from potentially devastating situations -- both mentally and physically. 

And while there aren't governments openly and brazenly funding it now, AI-driven weaponry was a big enough threat to send Elon Musk, Stephen Hawking, and other industry leaders to pen a letter to the United Nations begging them to preemptively work toward putting together solutions.

The video opens a bit like Tesla's semi truck reveal, actually. The press event swayed the audience into ooos and ahhhs as they watch miniaturized, AI-driven robots kill a group of "bad guys" during the demonstration. The press speaker encourages the enthusiasm, promising that all it takes to program these drone bots with a profile is someone's age, sex, fitness, uniform, and ethnicity.

However, as with a lot of technology, the drones fall into the wrong hands. The AIs get hacked and target one single group of politicians. They later break through concrete and glass to kill university students who had all shared a video exposing the injustices of the drones and their policies.

At the end of the video, you're left wondering if this is what Elon Musk sees when he rails against autonomous AI weaponry being developed.

And it's not just Musk. Stuart Russell works at the University of California Berkeley as a leading AI scientist. He said the world is closer to integrating autonomous weapons than we are self-driving cars.

"The technology illustrated in the film is simply an integration of existing capabilities. It is not science fiction. In fact, it is easier to achieve than self-driving cars, which require far higher standards of performance," Russell said in an interview with the Guardian.

Russell also pointed out similar issues in the video for the non-profit Stop Autonomous Weapons.

"I've worked in AI for more than 35 years," says Russell in the video. "Its potential to benefit humanity is enormous, even in defense, but allowing machines to choose to kill humans will be devastating to our security and freedom."

"Thousands of my fellow researchers agree. We have that opportunity to prevent the future you just saw, but the window to act is closing fast."

Those researchers include Noel Sharkey, emeritus professor of AI at Sheffield University who notably tried warning the robotics community about this issue in 2009.

“The movie made my hair stand on end as it crystallizes one possible futuristic outcome from the development of these hi-tech weapons,” he said. “There is an emerging arms race among the hi-tech nations to develop autonomous submarines, fighter jets, battleships and tanks that can find their own targets and apply violent force without the involvement of meaningful human decisions. It will only take one major war to unleash these new weapons with tragic humanitarian consequences and destabilization of global security.”

The primary function of approximate or preliminary estimating is to produce a forecast of the probable cost of a future project, before the building has been designed in detail and contract particulars prepared. In this way the building client is made aware of his likely financial commitments before extensive design work is undertaken.

Unit of accommodation method

This method is commonly used by national bodies such as the education and health services at the inception stage of construction. If a client has an amount of money to spend (a budget) then it would be possible to consider the likely number of functional units which can be provided. From experience, it might be found that the cost of providing a study bedroom in student accommodation is £20 000.

Using this figure an expenditure of £12 million would provide accommodation for approximately 600 students. On the other hand if the number of units is known, a budget cost (usually expressed as a cost range) can be calculated. Providing there are recent comparable data available, the unit method is useful where a simple and quick cost range is needed in the early stages. It is difficult, however, to adjust the costs for specific projects, in different locations, with varying ground conditions and so on.

Floor area method

The main reason for the popularity of the floor area method is its simplicity.There are few rules to remember and the cost per square metre is well understood by property developers. A proposed building is measured at each floor level (between inside faces of external walls); no deductions are made for internal walls, stairs or lift zones. Previous similar building costs are used by dividing the construction cost by the internal floor area. Adjustments can be made for location and inflation; but specification adjustments are much more difficult to estimate. Subjective judgements are made for size, shape, number of storeys, services, ground conditions and standard of finishes. A separate assessment should be made for external works, demolitions, incoming services and drainage which can be significantly different for similar buildings.

There are many buildings where the unit of accommodation method is impracticable; such as warehouse projects or open-plan offices. In these cases the superficial floor area method is found to be reliable with an accuracy of 10% to 15%. This method also works well with certain external works contracts such as concrete paving or macadam surfacing.

Sometimes contractors are asked to quote for building work using sketch drawings and a square metre price. It is unlikely that a contractor would risk signing a contract on this basis. First a clear scope of works would be needed together with a site survey and soil investigation report.The price must accurately reflect the amount and specification of works.

Building volume method

There are several methods, which use the volume of a building as the cost yardstick, but they are not widely used today. In some European countries, architects and engineers are familiar with building costs expressed as cubic metre prices. In Germany, there are publications, which list typical building costs in terms of their volume, and the procedure for calculating volumes is given in a DIN standard.

We have seen Bitcoin rise to an unprecedented popularity and being featured as one of the top cryptocurrencies around the globe. Many regard Bitcoin as the future of online payments and the financial market has already seen a boom in its acceptance as a form of payment. 2017 can undoubtedly be seen as the year of Bitcoin.

Bitcoin mining is the most tangible way a common man can benefit from all the advantages of Bitcoin that it can offer. Mining machines are utilized to mine Bitcoins which consume a lot of power. It involves a lot of computing power and alongside emission of heat to the environment. When a bitcoin transaction is carried out, it requires a certain amount of computing power which generates heat from the components of the machine. Very few people have thought of utilizing this heat which normally flows freely to the environment without being utilized.

Two smart Russian partners Ilya Frolov and Dmitry Tolmachyov based in Irkutsk however have a plan. They mine the Bitcoin and trap the heat generated by their machines to heat up their 20 m2 cottage. Heating is quite essential in Siberia where these clever entrepreneurs are located and they do so from the surplus heat while still generating around $430 a month.

Environmental Aspects

Every family needs a building to reside. Apart from residential purposes buildings are required for educational, institutional, business, assembly and for industrial purposes. Buildings are required for the storage of materials also.

ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING

The following are the basic elements of a building:

1. Foundation

2. Plinth

3. Walls and columns

4. Sills, lintels and chejjas

5. Doors and windows

6. Floors

7. Roofs

8. Steps, stairs and lifts

9. Finishing work

10. Building services.

The functions of these elements and the main requirement of them is presented in this article.

1. Foundation: Foundation is the most important part of the building. Building activity starts with digging the ground for foundation and then building it. It is the lower most part of the building. It transfers the load of the building to the ground. Its main functions and requirements are:

(a) Distribute the load from the structure to soil evenly and safely.

(b) To anchor the building to the ground so that under lateral loads building will not move.

(c) It prevents the building from overturning due to lateral forces.

(d) It gives level surface for the construction of super structure.

2. Plinth: The portion of the wall between the ground level and the ground floor level is called plinth. It is usually of stone masonry. If the foundation is on piles, a plinth beam is cast to support wall above floor level. At the top of plinth a damp proof course is provided. It is usually 75 mm thick plain concrete course. The function of the plinth is to keep the ground floor above ground level, free of dampness. Its height is not less than 450 mm. It is required that plinth level is at least 150 mm above the road level, so that connections to underground drainage system can be made.

3. Walls and Columns: The function of walls and columns is to transfer the load of the structure vertically downwards to transfer it to foundation. Apart from this wall performs the following functions also:

(a) It encloses building area into different compartments and provides privacy.

(b) It provides safety from burglary and insects.

(c) It keeps the building warm in winter and cool in summer.

4. Sills, Lintels and Chejjas: A window frame should not be directly placed over masonry. It is placed over 50 mm to 75 mm thick plain concrete course provided over the masonry. This course is called as sill. Lintels are the R.C.C. or stone beams provided over the door and window openings to transfer the load transversely so as to see that door or window frame is not stressed unduly. The width of lintels is equal to the width of wall while thickness to be provided depends upon the opening size.

Chejja is the projection given outside the wall to protect doors and windows from the rain. They are usually made with R.C.C. In low cost houses stone slabs are provided as chejjas. The projection of chejja varies from 600 mm to 800 mm. Sometimes drops are also provided to chejjas to improve acsethetic look and also to get additional protection from sun and rain.

5. Doors and Windows: The function of a door is to give access to different rooms in the building and to deny the access whenever necessary. Number of doors should be minimum possible. The size of the door should be of such dimension as will facilitate the movement of the largest object likely to use the door. Windows are provided to get light and ventilation in the building. They are located at a height of 0.75 m to 0.9 m from the floor level. In hot and humid regions, the window area should be 15 to 20 per cent of the floor area. Another thumb rule used to determine the size and the number of windows is for every 30 m³ of inside volume there should be 1 m² window opening.

6. Floors: Floors are the important component of a building. They give working/useful area for the occupants. The ground floor is prepared by filling brick bats, waste stones, gravel and well compacted with not less than 100 mm sand layer on its top. A lean concrete of 1 : 4 : 8, 100 mm thick is laid. On this a damp proof course may be provided. Then floor finishing is done as per the requirement of the owner. Cheapest floor finish for a moderate house is with 20 to 25 mm rich mortar course finished with red oxide. The costliest floor finish is mossaic or marble finishing. Other floors are usually of R.C.C. finished as per the requirements of the owner.

7. Roof: Roof is the top most portion of the building which provide top cover to the building. It should be leak proof. Sloping roof like tiled and A.C. sheet give leak proof cover easily. But they do not give provision for the construction of additional floor. Tiled roof give good thermal protection. Flat roofs give provision for additional floors. Terrace adds to the comfort of occupants. Water tanks can be easily placed over the flat roofs.

8. Step, Stairs and Lifts: Steps give convenient access from ground level to ground floor level. They are required at doors in the outer wall. 250 to 300 mm wide and 150 mm rise is ideal size for steps. In no case the size of two consecutive steps be different. Number of steps required depends upon the difference in the levels of the ground and the floor. Stairs give access from floor to floor. They should consists of steps of uniform sizes.

In all public buildings lifts are to be provided for the conveniences of old and disabled persons. In hostels G + 3 floors can be built without lifts, but in residential flats maximum floors permitted without lifts is only G + 2. Lift is to be located near the entrance. Size of the lift is decided by the number of users in peak hours. Lifts are available with capacity 4 to 20 persons.

9. Finishing: Bottom portion of slab (ceiling), walls and top of floor need smooth finishing with plaster. Then they are provided with white wash, distemper or paints or tiles. The function of finishing work is:

(a) Give protective cover

(b) Improve aesthetic view

(c) Rectify defective workmanship

(d) Finishing work for plinth consists in pointing while for floor it consists in polishing.

10. Building Services: Water supply, sanitation and drainage works, electric supply work and construction of cupboards and show cases constitute major building services. For storing water from municipal supply or from tanker a sump is built in the house property near street. From the sump water is pumped to over head tanks placed on or above roof level so as to get water all the 24 hours. Plumbing work is made so as to get water in kitchen, bathrooms, water closets, sinks and garden taps. For draining rain water from roofs, down take pipes of at least 100 mm diameters should be used. Proper slopes should be given to roof towards down take pipe. These pipes should be fixed at 10 to 15 mm below the roof surface so that rain water is directed to the down take pipe easily.

The sanitary fittings are to be connected to stone ware pipes with suitable traps and chambers. Stone ware pipes are then connected to underground drainage of municipal lines or to the septic tank. Many carpentry works are required for building service. They are in the form of showcases, cupboards, racks etc. Electric supply is essential part of building services. The building should be provided with sufficient points for supply of lights, fans and other electric gadgets.

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF A BUILDING

The planning and construction of a building should be aimed at fulfilling the following requirements:

1. Strength and stability

2. Dimensional stability

3. Resistance to dampness

4. Resistance to fire

5. Heat insulation

6. Sound insulation

7. Protection against termite attack

8. Durability

9. Security against burglary
10. Lighting and ventilation

11. Comforts and convenience

12. Economy

1. Strength and Stability: Building should be capable of transferring the expected loads in its life period safely to the ground. Design of various structural components like slabs, beams, walls, columns and footing should ensure safety. None of the structural components should buckle, overturn and collapse.

2. Dimensional Stability: Excessive deformation of structural components give a sense of instability and result into crack in walls, flooring etc. All structural components, should be so designed that deflections do not exceed the permissible values specified in the codes.

3. Resistance to Dampness: Dampness in a building is a great nuisance and it may reduce the life of the building. Great care should be taken in planning and in the construction of the building to avoid dampness.

4. Resistance to Fire: Regarding achieving resistance to fire, the basic requirements laid down in the codes are:

(a) the structure should not ignite easily.

(b) building orientation should be such that spread of fire is slow.

(c) In case of fire, there should be means of easy access to vacate building quickly.

5. Heat Insulation: A building should be so oriented and designed that it insulates interior from heat.

6. Sound Insulation: Buildings should be planned against outdoor and indoor noises.

7. Protection from Termite: Buildings should be protected from termites.

8. Durability: Each and every component of the building should be durable.

9. Security against Burglary: This is the basic need the owner of the building expects.

10. Lighting and Ventilation: For healthy and happy living natural light and ventilations are required. Diffused light and good cross ventilation should be available inside the building.

11. Comforts and Conveniences: Various units in the building should be properly grouped and integrated keeping in mind the comfort and convenience of the user.

12. Economy: Economy without sacrificing comfort, convenience and durability is another basic requirement of the building.