Engineers Daily

Power Generating Garments for Daily Life

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<span style="font-size: small;">A lightweight, comfortable jacket that can generate the power to light up a jogger at night may sound futuristic, but materials scientist Trisha Andrew at the University of Massachusetts Amherst could make one today. In a new paper this month, she and colleagues outline how they have invented a way to apply breathable, pliable, metal-free electrodes to fabric and off-the-shelf clothing so it feels good to the touch and also transports enough electricity to power small electronics. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">She says, "Our lab works on textile electronics. We aim to build up the materials science so you can give us any garment you want, any fabric, any weave type, and turn it into a conductor. Such conducting textiles can then be built up into sophisticated electronics. One such application is to harvest body motion energy and convert it into electricity in such a way that every time you move, it generates power." Powering advanced fabrics that can monitor health data remotely are important to the military and increasingly valued by the health care industry, she notes. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Generating small electric currents through relative movement of layers is called triboelectric charging, explains Andrew, who trained as a polymer chemist and electrical engineer. Materials can become electrically charged as they create friction by moving against a different material, like rubbing a comb on a sweater. "By sandwiching layers of differently materials between two conducting electrodes, a few microwatts of power can be generated when we move," she adds.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;">PEDOT-coated yarns that act as 'normal' wires
 transmit electricity from a wall outlet to an incandescent lightbulb. 
Materials scientist Trisha Andrew at UMass Amherst and colleagues 
outline in a new paper how they have invented a way to apply breathable,
 pliable, metal-free electrodes to fabric and off-the-shelf clothing so 
it feels good to the touch and also transports electricity to power 
small electronics. Harvesting body motion energy generates power.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #990000; font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Credit: UMass Amherst</i></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;">In the current early online edition of Advanced Functional Materials, she and postdoctoral researcher Lu Shuai Zhang in her lab describe the vapor deposition method they use to coat fabrics with a conducting polymer, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxytiophene) also known as PEDOT, to make plain-woven, conducting fabrics that are resistant to stretching and wear and remain stable after washing and ironing. The thickest coating they put down is about 500 nanometers, or about 1/10 the diameter of a human hair, which retains a fabric's hand feel. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">The authors report results of testing electrical conductivity, fabric stability, chemical and mechanical stability of PEDOT films and textile parameter effects on conductivity for 14 fabrics, including five cottons with different weaves, linen and silk from a craft store. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">"Our article describes the materials science needed to make these robust conductors," Andrew says. "We show them to be stable to washing, rubbing, human sweat and a lot of wear and tear." PEDOT coating did not change the feel of any fabric as determined by touch with bare hands before and after coating. Coating did not increase fabric weight by more than 2 percent. The work was supported by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Until recently, she and Zhang point out, textile scientists have tended not to use vapor deposition because of technical difficulties and high cost of scaling up from the laboratory. But over the last 10 years, industries such as carpet manufacturers and mechanical component makers have shown that the technology can be scaled up and remain cost-effective. The researchers say their invention also overcomes the obstacle of power-generating electronics mounted on plastic or cladded, veneer-like fibers that make garments heavier and/or less flexible than off-the-shelf clothing "no matter how thin or flexible these device arrays are." </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">"There is strong motivation to use something that is already familiar, such as cotton/silk thread, fabrics and clothes, and imperceptibly adapting it to a new technological application." Andrew adds, "This is a huge leap for consumer products, if you don't have to convince people to wear something different than what they are already wearing." </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Test results were sometimes a surprise, Andrew notes. "You'd be amazed how much stress your clothes go through until you try to make a coating that will survive a shirt being pulled over the head. The stress can be huge, up to a thousand newtons of force. For comparison, one footstep is equal to about 10 newtons, so it's yanking hard. If your coating is not stable, a single pull like that will flake it all off. That's why we had to show that we could bend it, rub it and torture it. That is a very powerful requirement to move forward." </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Andrew is director of wearable electronics at the Center for Personalized Health Monitoring in UMass Amherst's Institute of Applied Life Sciences (IALS). Since the basic work reported this month was completed, her lab has also made a wearable heart rate monitor with an off-the-shelf fitness bra to which they added eight monitoring electrodes. They will soon test it with volunteers on a treadmill at the IALS human movement facility. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">She explains that a hospital heart rate monitor has 12 electrodes, while the wrist-worn fitness devices popular today have one, which makes them prone to false positives. They will be testing a bra with eight electrodes, alone and worn with leggings that add four more, against a control to see if sensors can match the accuracy and sensitivity of what a hospital can do. As the authors note in their paper, flexible, body-worn electronics represent a frontier of human interface devices that make advanced physiological and performance monitoring possible. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">For the future, Andrew says, "We're working on taking any garment you give us and turning it into a solar cell so that as you are walking around the sunlight that hits your clothes can be stored in a battery or be plugged in to power a small electronic device." </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Zhang and Andrew believe their vapor coating is able to stick to fabrics by a process called surface grafting, which takes advantage of free bonds dangling on the surface chemically bonding to one end of the polymer coating, but they have yet to investigate this fully. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;">Source:<a href="http://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts at Amherst</a>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;">Journal Reference:</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;">Lushuai Zhang, Marianne Fairbanks, Trisha L. Andrew. Rugged Textile Electrodes for Wearable Devices Obtained by Vapor Coating Off-the-Shelf, Plain-Woven Fabrics. Advanced Functional Materials, 2017; 1700415 DOI: <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201700415">10.1002/adfm.201700415</a></span></div>

Power Generating Garments for Daily Life

A lightweight, comfortable jacket that can generate the power to light up a jogger at night may sound futuristic, but materials scientist T...

IceHotel 365 - World’s First Permanent Ice Hotel Opens in Sweden (2016)

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A permanent year-round ice hotel opened to the public in Swede. The resort, known as <b>“Ice-Hotel-365”</b>, hosts 55 rooms, including 20 suites, and is made up of 30,000 liters of frozen water from the <b>Torne River</b>. The hotel uses a solar-powered refrigerating plant used to keep the <b>ice</b> and snow that make up the <b><i>hotel frozen</i></b>.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>3D model of Ice-Hotel-365 (Image courtesy:icehotel.com)</b></span></td></tr>
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Guests at the hotel will have the opportunity to create their own ice sculpture, swim in the Torne River, sauna and observe an ice gallery from the over forty artists, designers and architects from nine different countries that will melt back into the river and eventually be replaced.<br />
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“They also have the opportunity to follow the artists who are finalizing sculpturing their suites, and meet builders, designers and creators – the people who during the past months have endeavored and created ICEHOTEL-365”, Icehotel CEO Yngve Bergqvist said.<br />
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>Location of ICE Hotel - 365</b></span></span><br />
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IceHotel-365 is located 200 kilometers north of the Arctic circle in Jukkasjärvi, has been built to a fresh blueprint each year, using 5,000 tons of ice taken from the nearby River Torne in the spring and cold-stored over the summer.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-nNoeJIMzpps/WMuol72HjhI/AAAAAAAAG50/T3blr_yTUY0Q00qwiunfNCeGAKZRAbsGACLcB/s1600/icehotel_engineersdaily.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="IceHotel 365 - World’s First Permanent Ice Hotel Opens in Sweden" border="0" height="414" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-nNoeJIMzpps/WMuol72HjhI/AAAAAAAAG50/T3blr_yTUY0Q00qwiunfNCeGAKZRAbsGACLcB/s640/icehotel_engineersdaily.jpg" title="IceHotel 365 - World’s First Permanent Ice Hotel Opens in Sweden" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Proposed Model of icehotel-365 via icehotel.com</b></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><b><span style="font-size: large;"> Hang on !!! There's lot more in IceHotel-365</span></b></span><br />
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Sections of the hotel will continue to melt and be rebuilt as usual -- meaning there will still be fresh new icy artworks for guests to enjoy each year.<br />
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More than 40 artists, designers and architects from nine different countries have worked on the hotel.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-2G8-gd7dG_k/WMuoxnYZ3XI/AAAAAAAAG54/BRKuQa4P6W0FTpdxI0MAe0N7lcyRU5YaQCLcB/s1600/icehotel3_engineersdaily.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="IceHotel 365 - World’s First Permanent Ice Hotel Opens in Sweden" border="0" height="426" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-2G8-gd7dG_k/WMuoxnYZ3XI/AAAAAAAAG54/BRKuQa4P6W0FTpdxI0MAe0N7lcyRU5YaQCLcB/s640/icehotel3_engineersdaily.jpg" title="IceHotel 365 - World’s First Permanent Ice Hotel Opens in Sweden" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">Sculptures made in IceHotel-365 (Image courtesy:designboom.com)</span></b></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Ig-LjcYwSgc/WMup2MpHPcI/AAAAAAAAG6E/WNg7PeUc7QM2jc_-4KEJvYfBGzy9uNJ2ACLcB/s1600/icehotel_engineersdaily4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="IceHotel 365 - World’s First Permanent Ice Hotel Opens in Sweden" border="0" height="360" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Ig-LjcYwSgc/WMup2MpHPcI/AAAAAAAAG6E/WNg7PeUc7QM2jc_-4KEJvYfBGzy9uNJ2ACLcB/s640/icehotel_engineersdaily4.jpg" title="IceHotel 365 - World’s First Permanent Ice Hotel Opens in Sweden" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">Inside view of a room (Image courtesy:cnn.com)</span></b></td></tr>
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IceHotel 365 - World’s First Permanent Ice Hotel Opens in Sweden (2016)

A permanent year-round ice hotel opened to the public in Swede. The resort, known as “Ice-Hotel-365” , hosts 55 rooms, including 20 suites,...

World's Largest Dam: Three Gorges Dam, China (长江三峡水利枢纽工程)

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With an incomprehensible quantity of concrete used in it, the world's largest dam proudly stands on China's Yangtze River. It is a hydroelectric dam situated in Yiling District, Yichang, Hubei province, China. The dam has increased the shipping capacity of Yangtze river in addition to power generation. Some facts are as follows,</div>
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Name: Three Gorges Dam, China (长江三峡水利枢纽工程)<br />
Completion of dam body: 2006<br />
Total capacity
39.3 km<sup>3</sup><br />
Time to build: 17 years<br />
Cost to build: $22 billion<br />
No. of main turbines: 32<br />
Total power generation capacity: 22,500 MW<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">World's Largest Dam: Three Gorges Dam, China (长江三峡水利枢纽工程)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Image: <a class="profileLink" data-hovercard-prefer-more-content-show="1" data-hovercard="/ajax/hovercard/page.php?id=124801854275387" href="https://www.blogger.com/null">PopularMechanics</a></span></td></tr>
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World's Largest Dam: Three Gorges Dam, China (长江三峡水利枢纽工程)

With an incomprehensible quantity of concrete used in it, the world's largest dam proudly stands on China's Yangtze River. It is a ...

The Kashmir Earthquake of October 8, 2005: Impacts in Pakistan

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<b><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #990000;">Introduction</span></span></b></div>
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On October 8, 2005, at 8:50 a.m. lo-cal time, a magnitude Mw = 7.6 <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2015/04/hazards-associated-with-earthquakes.html" target="_blank">earthquake</a> struck the Himalayan region of northern Pakistan and Kashmir. The earthquake epicenter was located approximately 19 km north northeast of the city of Muzaffarabad, the capital of the Pakistani administered part of Kashmir, known as Azad Jammu Kashmir (AJK).</div>
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The Pakistani government’s official death toll as of November 2005 stood at 87,350, although it is estimated that the death toll could reach over 100,000. Approximately 138,000 were injured and over 3.5 million rendered homeless. According to government figures, 19,000 children died in the earthquake, most of them in widespread collapses of school buildings. The earthquake affected more than 500,000 families. In addition, approximately 250,000 farm animals died due to collapse of stone barns, and more than 500,000 large animals required immediate shelter from the harsh winter.</div>
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It is estimated that more than 780,000 buildings were either destroyed or damaged beyond repair, and many more were rendered unusable for extended periods of time. Out of these, approximately 17,000 school buildings and most of the major hospitals close to the epicenter were destroyed or severely damaged. Lifelines were adversely affected, especially the numerous vital roads and highways that were closed by landslides and bridge failures. Several areas remained cut off via land routes even three months after the main event. Power, water supply, and telecommunication services were down for varying lengths of time, although in most areas services were restored within a few weeks.<br />
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Massive landsliding was a particular feature of this event. A very dense, high-frequency band of landslides was triggered along the fault rupture trace in the midslope areas; however, it quickly dissipated with distance away from the fault rupture zone. Almost all landslides were shallow, disaggregated slides, with two of them larger than 0.1 km2. Due to the generally arid landscape, liquefaction was not observed or reported by others.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">Figure 1. General location map, Mw = 7.6 Kashmir <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2015/04/hazards-associated-with-earthquakes.html" target="_blank">Earthquake</a></span></b></td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #990000;"><b>Seismotectonics</b></span></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2010/12/fundamentals-of-earthquake-engineering.html" target="_blank">Seismic</a> activity in South Asia is a direct result of the collision of the Indian and the Eurasian plates, which results from the northwestern motion of the Indian Plate at the rate of 4-5 cm per year (Figure 1). The re- sulting collision has fractured the In-dian plate into several slices beneath the Kashmir Basin and is known as the Indus-Kohistan seismic zone (Seeber and Armbruster 1979). The <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2015/04/hazards-associated-with-earthquakes.html" target="_blank">earthquake</a> occurred within the Hazara-Kashmir syntaxis of the Himalayan fold belt. The main identified feature in this zone is the Balakot-Bagh fault (Hussain 2005), which is the likely source of the earthquake (Figure 2). The fault plane solution shows a strike of 338 degrees, dip-ping about 50 degrees in the N-NE direction near the surface with a more gentle dip at depth. Net slip for this event, estimated by field survey and radar range changes, is 4.2 ± 0.5m, with a maximum slip of ap-proximately 5m. The reported focal depth for this event ranges from 13km (MSSP), to 20km (USGS), to 26km (IGS).</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">Figure 2. Tectonic map of northwestern Pakistan (Hussain et al. 2004).</span></b></td></tr>
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The intensity distribution estimated and interpreted by the Pakistan Geo-logical Survey is closely associated with the rupture zone. Outside the narrow (5-10 km) width of the rupture zone, the signs of damage appeared to be fairly minor. While there was damage in more distant locations such as Abbotabad (35 km from rupture zone), Islamabad (64 km), and Lahore (> 250 km distant), it can be attributed to local site effects or poor construction rather than direct intense shaking from the <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2014/11/concepts-terminology-and-sources-of-earthquakes.html" target="_blank">earthquake</a>. Within the rupture zone, the city of Muzaffarabad suffered great damage (IX-X on MMI scale), and the city of Balakot was almost totally destroyed (X on MMI scale). The distribution of subsequent after-shocks, in the Balakot, Batagram, Allai, and Beshram Qila areas, suggests that the fault rupture extended in the NW direction.<br />
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The surface trace of the causative fault can be interpreted from the map of ground displacements from radar amplitude measurements (COMET 2005). The surface expression of the fault can also be<br />
clearly detected in images of lithology change from Landsat data. A 3-D relief projection shows the expression of this fault not only in the surface geology, but also in the surface geomorphology. Figure 3 shows ground deformation that appears to be tectonic in nature, possibly but not necessarily associated with the main rupture trace.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Figure 3. Localized zone of uplift.</b></span></td></tr>
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Because of the lack of instrumentation, there are no strong motion records within the zone of intense shaking. Observational data and reports from locals suggest astrong vertical component and<br />
30-45 seconds of strong shaking.<br />
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Strong motion records in Abbotabad (35 km from rupture zone), Murree (34 km), and Nilore (54 km)<br />
show maximum horizontal peak ground accelerations (PGA) of 0.231g, 0.078g and 0.026g, respectively; and vertical PGAs of 0.087g, 0.069g and 0.03g, respectively (MAEC, 2005). Maxi-mum horizontal PGA was 0.16g at the crest and 0.1g at the base of Tarbela Dam (located approximately 78 km distant), and 0.1g at the downstream toe of the Mangla Dam (approximately 90 km distant) were also reported (Ilyas 2005).</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-iFiTxOE5dFU/WInywV48ZhI/AAAAAAAAG3I/3D9pAayk1b8T_3Gv9FvTdR5LRpt2gQjKACLcB/s1600/kashmir_pak_fig4%2528www.engineersdaily.com%2529.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="The Kashmir Earthquake of October 8, 2005: Impacts in Pakistan" border="0" height="480" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-iFiTxOE5dFU/WInywV48ZhI/AAAAAAAAG3I/3D9pAayk1b8T_3Gv9FvTdR5LRpt2gQjKACLcB/s640/kashmir_pak_fig4%2528www.engineersdaily.com%2529.bmp" title="The Kashmir Earthquake of October 8, 2005: Impacts in Pakistan" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Figure 4. Landslide concentration along mid-slopes.</b></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #990000;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>Landslides</b></span></span></div>
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Landslide concentrations along the rupture zone were very high, but quickly dissipated within as little as 2 km of the surface projection of the fault. During the aerial reconnaissance of the affected area, landslide damage appeared to be most severe on the hanging wall, with relatively low concentrations on the footwall side. A very high concentration of large and small landslides was observed in the mid-slope area along the surface projection of the fault (Figure 4).<br />
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The number of slope failures also increased significantly along slopes with aspects in the fault-normal direction, showing strong indication of rupture directivity effects. Other effects such as topographic ridge top amplification were widely observed, especially in the case of elongated ridges with steep slopes. In some cases, where the ground motion was perpendicular to the ridge axis, damage was noted on one side of the ridge slope, but not on the other. This variability may be due to active road-building that created a weakness in the direction of total collapse, in addition to the structural/geologic component, thereby adding to the greater susceptibility of one of these slopes.</div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: #990000;"><b>Shallow, Disrupted Landslides:</b></span></span> Ubiquitous shallow landslides and rock falls on steep natural slopes and in steep road cuts were initiated during the <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2014/11/concepts-terminology-and-sources-of-earthquakes.html" target="_blank">earthquake</a>. They posed the largest threat to mountain roads and structures at slope bases. Even though relatively small in scale, the shallow landslides had a pervasive nature that significantly contributed to damage caused by the earthquake, particularly in the lower slopes inhabited by large human populations. Many of these slopes, such as along the river terrace in Muzaffarabad, continue to pose a major <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2014/03/site-related-earthquake-hazards-overview.html" target="_blank">hazard</a> due to the presence of large tension cracks as far back as 10 m, especially since emergency shelters have been set up in such areas.<br />
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The shallow landslides were not associated with specific geologic units and/or type of slopes. They were as deep as the root zone of the vegetative cover, anywhere from several decimeters to a meter deep, and consisted of dry, highly dis-aggregated and fractured material that cascaded down slope to flatter areas at or near the base of steep slopes.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-rHT_Imrb1j4/WInzd3nKHHI/AAAAAAAAG3Q/KV3cAqCwFNksJfLWtLDAaBuc15C1mseHQCLcB/s1600/kashmir_pak_fig5%2528www.engineersdaily.com%2529.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="The Kashmir Earthquake of October 8, 2005: Impacts in Pakistan" border="0" height="484" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-rHT_Imrb1j4/WInzd3nKHHI/AAAAAAAAG3Q/KV3cAqCwFNksJfLWtLDAaBuc15C1mseHQCLcB/s640/kashmir_pak_fig5%2528www.engineersdaily.com%2529.bmp" title="The Kashmir Earthquake of October 8, 2005: Impacts in Pakistan" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Figure 5. Note massive landslide in the background, completely collapsed structures in the foreground with only roofs intact.</b></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #990000;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Deep-Seated Landslides:</b></span></span> Deep-seated landslides were far less numerous than shallow slides. The two most significant ones (larger than 0.1 square km) were noted in Muzaffarabad and in the Jhelum Valley. The former, located north of Muzaffarabad, occurred in a dolomitic limestone unit that had pre-viously failed and dammed the Neelum River for a day. There was evidence of a preexisting landslide in this formation that had also dammed the river. The enormous, deep-seated failure in the Jhelum Valley was 36 km southeast of the epicenter and within 3 km of the surface projection of the fault in a jointed sandstone unit. The land-slide was over 1 km wide and the distance between the top of the slip surface and the toe of the debris was more than 2 km. (See the special <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2014/06/thesis-performance-based-earthquake-engineering-form-smitha.html" target="_blank">earthquake</a> report insert in the December 2005 EERI Newsletter for further discussion of this slide.) The landslide debris created a dam that blocked the convergence of two small rivers at the bottom of the valley.<br />
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<span style="color: #990000;"><b>Rock Falls:</b></span> Rock falls involving large rocks or boulders were com-mon and resulted in considerable damage and disruption to road-ways, structures, and communities. Many such slides, triggered by frequent aftershocks, resulted in significant fatalities.</div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #990000;"><b>Structures</b></span></span></div>
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Most building damage resulted from ground shaking, though a large number of buildings located mostly on or near slopes were destroyed by ground failure due to landsliding or subsidence (Figure 5). The larg-est concentration of destroyed or damaged buildings was in Muzaffarabad and Balakot. Other cities such as Bagh and Rawlakot also had significant damage, but were not visited by the EERI team due to limited time. It is estimated that in Muzaffarabad, 30-50% of the buildings were either destroyed or badly damaged in the main event. Major damage concentrations in Muzaffar-abad were in areas of deeper alluvial deposits along the Neelum and Jhelum rivers. Damage in Balakot was directly related to fault rupture.<br />
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In Abbotabad, damage was due to local site response in the Cantonment area that was reportedly developed on former marshland. Several other towns located along the rupture zone (Bagh to Batagram) also suffered significant damage to their building stock. The widely photographed collapse of the high-rise Margala Towers in Islamabad, located over 80 km from the epicenter, may have been due to construction related issues.<br />
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A helicopter survey revealed that a large number of buildings in the more rural, mountainous areas perhaps as much as 50% in areas proximate to the fault rupture—were destroyed or severely damaged. These were mostly farm-houses belonging to migratory and non-migratory mountain slope farmers. The government of Pakistan estimates that more than 80% of the total destroyed buildings were located in rural regions.<br />
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<span style="color: #990000;"><b>Bearing Wall Construction:</b></span> Most of the buildings in the affected area are of non-engineered unreinforced masonry (URM) wall construction. The typical structure consists of one or two stories of unreinforced stone, solid brick or solid concrete block masonry-bearing walls with reinforced concrete floors. Roof structures are flat or pitched. Flat roofs in smaller towns and villages consist of wood (non-machined) beams and straw-reinforced mud slabs and occasionally lightly rein-forced concrete slabs (“Tayyar Chath”) or GI (galvanized iron) sheets. Larger towns have buildings built of reinforced concrete slab roofs. Pitched roof construction, gabled, with or without hips, is framed with wood or light steel trusses with corrugated sheet metal roofing. Tiled roofs can also be found in this region. The smaller villages also contain adobe structures that, as expected, performed poorly in the <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2014/03/how-to-define-earthquake-design-loads.html" target="_blank">earthquake</a>.<br />
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Foundations are constructed mostly of stones or bricks bearing on native soils about two to three feet below grade and 18 to 24 inches wide. The only steel reinforcing found in most of the bearing wall construction is in lintels (window or door headers), and normally consists of four #4 bars in a 9 x 9 concrete beam with stirrups or ties at 9-12 inch spacing. Typically, no bond beams are part of the wall and no positive ties exist between the walls and the floors/roofs. The performance of the URM wall <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2014/03/how-buildings-resist-earthquakes.html" target="_blank">buildings in the earthquake</a> was varied and seems to have depended on factors such as redundancy in structural walls and quality of materials and construction (Figure 6).</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-sZpm36YwkpY/WIn00mD3yKI/AAAAAAAAG3g/166sUS4sr1k4Ti399xsjRwy1ELpEYdPEQCLcB/s1600/kashmir_pak_fig6%2528www.engineersdaily.com%2529.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="The Kashmir Earthquake of October 8, 2005: Impacts in Pakistan" border="0" height="480" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-sZpm36YwkpY/WIn00mD3yKI/AAAAAAAAG3g/166sUS4sr1k4Ti399xsjRwy1ELpEYdPEQCLcB/s640/kashmir_pak_fig6%2528www.engineersdaily.com%2529.bmp" title="The Kashmir Earthquake of October 8, 2005: Impacts in Pakistan" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">Figure 6. Man in front of his sister’s house in Muzaffarabad that collapsed and killed her. Masonry bearing wall construction.</span></b></td></tr>
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In areas of strong shaking, most stone masonry-bearing wall structures collapsed or suffered severe damage. A majority of these structures were constructed of non-dressed round stones with mud or weak cement mortar. The weakness of the mortar was clearly evident; the mortar would crumble even when manipulated with bare hands. Issues with concrete block construction were poor block strength, weak mortar, and lack of seismic detailing. In general, fired-clay brick masonry wall buildings appear to have performed better than the other types of wall construction.<br />
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<span style="color: #990000;"><b>Framed Construction:</b></span> A small percentage of buildings in the area, mostly larger multistory buildings in the larger towns, are non-ductile reinforced concrete stick frame construction with nonstructural infill block or brick walls with plaster finish (Figure 7). The floors are mostly of beam and slab construction supported by columns resting on pad foundations. There is no lateral force resisting system, and it is mostly infill walls that provide some amount of lateral strength and stiffness. A number of buildings, some of them three or four stories tall, were seen resting entirely on “nonstructural” infill walls while the columns had failed just below the first elevated floor. Many soft/weak story failures were observed in mixed use multistory buildings with open store-fronts at the first/ground floor level and walled office/residential space in the upper stories.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Figure 7. Failed column at a storefront showing three aspects of damage: (1) column failure; (2) soft/ weak story at storefront; (3) infill walls preventing total collapse of building.</b></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: #990000;"><b>Schools and Hospitals:</b></span></span> Virtually all school buildings are government-built and owned, and every community has an elementary school, even the remote villages. Anecdotal evidence suggests catastrophic damage to a much higher proportion of public schools than nongovernmental buildings in the same areas. Poor quality of construction and lack of seismic design has been faulted in these building collapses. Although most school buildings collapsed totally or partially, many schools were open and functioning with the classes being held in the adjacent school yard.<br />
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Many hospitals in the region also suffered severe damage or collapsed. Of the two main hospitals in Muzaffar-abad, the main Combined Military Hospital (CMH) totally collapsed, killing or injuring many patients and workers. Residents of the city had to rely on emergency medical aid from the military and NGOs like the Red Crescent/Red Cross as they mobilized for the rescue effort 24 hours after the earthquake.<br />
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A major hospital in Abbotabad, the Ayub Medical College, was a critical care facility lost due to lack of a proper post-earthquake assessment process. The hospital was evacuated and patients relocated to the front yard of the facility due to mistaken categorization of nonstructural damage as major structural damage. This resulted in significant disruption of hospital operations. A similar problem occurred with the Abbas Medical Institute in Muzaffarabad.<br />
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The issue of post-earthquake safety assessment is a significant one even for ordinary buildings. Due to lack of qualified personnel, a number of homeowners uncertain about the safety of their homes temporarily relocated to distant towns or tents, even though their homes did not appear to have any significant damage.</div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #990000;"><b>Lifelines</b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #990000;"><b>Transportation:</b></span> Road closures completely cut off land access to the Jhelum, Neelum, and Kaghan valleys. Landslides were the predominant cause of the closures. The problem of slope failures along road cuts was exacerbated by a road-building process that uses explosives in weak structures and cuts into toes of pre-existing land-slides. Many road closures were due to shallow dis aggregated slides and rock falls that rarely caused the complete loss of the roadway bench. However, the unstable nature of the debris and the presence of disrupted rock masses along the slopes above the roadway created ongoing challenges in clearing and opening the roads.</div>
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The problem of road closures was so significant that the army dedicated 12 engineer battalions to open roads. Due to the army’s extensive experience with road building, and the availability of skilled builders in the mountain communities after many years of building the Karakoram Highway, the opening and reconstruction of roads was handled efficiently. At the time of the reconnaissance, the Jhelum Valley Road, the Kaghan Valley Road, and the Karakoram Highway had been cleared and opened. The Neelum Valley Road, the only other major road in the affected area, had only a 5-km stretch remaining to be cleared. While most major roads have been reopened, there is a vast network of tertiary roads serving the mountain community in the higher elevations. Many of these roads remain closed, cutting off populations that did not even experience the direct effects of the earthquake and hampering relief efforts.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Figure 8. Shearing failure of bridge tower foundation, Balakot.</b></span></td></tr>
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Several bridges were damaged, especially within the Jhelum Valley and in Balakot. However, a number of bridges did not suffer much dam- age and were open to traffic. Within the earthquake-affected zone, the most prevalent bridge type was either suspension bridges or reinforced concrete multiple span bridges. The former consist of a wood deck supported on steel girders sus-pended by steel cables on either side of the deck. The cables are supported by a tower at each end and anchored in a concrete anchor block. In addition, the deck is prevented against sway by cables attached to a longitudinal cable on each side below the deck elevation and anchored in concrete anchor blocks. The suspension bridges are typically for pedestrian use, with some allowing vehicular traffic. Damage to suspension bridges ranged from shearing of the tower foundation (Figure 8) to complete collapse of the towers (Figure 9). There was no damage to cables or cable anchorage, except in one bridge where the cables were fractured after the collapse of the towers due to a fire in an adjacent store containing gas cylinders.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-qVc348Oqhrc/WIn5t0GREQI/AAAAAAAAG4c/LGMivKAmXLsq6qUSO8oWuhbd1zpuCY9zgCLcB/s1600/kashmir_pak_fig9%2528www.engineersdaily.com%2529.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="The Kashmir Earthquake of October 8, 2005: Impacts in Pakistan" border="0" height="480" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-qVc348Oqhrc/WIn5t0GREQI/AAAAAAAAG4c/LGMivKAmXLsq6qUSO8oWuhbd1zpuCY9zgCLcB/s640/kashmir_pak_fig9%2528www.engineersdaily.com%2529.jpg" title="The Kashmir Earthquake of October 8, 2005: Impacts in Pakistan" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Figure 9. Collapsed suspension bridge, Jhelum Valley.</b></span></td></tr>
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Reinforced concrete bridges in the area typically consisted of single or multiple span reinforced concrete decks supported on reinforced concrete columns or pier walls. Damage to reinforced concrete bridges ranged from sliding of deck or significant movement of wing walls.<br />
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<span style="color: #990000;"><b>Water Supply:</b></span> Private water stor-age in the form of roof-mounted storage tanks is prevalent in the area. In the earthquake zones, many overhead water tanks shifted or collapsed. Municipal water sup-ply to Muzaffarabad comes from the River Neelum. River water is lifted from six intake lines and treated in a series of rapid sand filters and clarifiers. Damage to this water system ranged from damage to clarifier baffles, motor control units, and distribution piping in some areas. With help from UNICEF, the system was repaired fairly quickly untreated water was returned within five days, and treated water was available ten days following the earthquake.</div>
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In smaller villages and hamlets, water comes from private ground water wells or natural streams. In one case, a hamlet located between Mansehra and Ghari Habib-ullah experienced a significant drop in water elevation in its wells two weeks after the earthquake, and the locals reported high turbidity.<br />
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<span style="color: #990000;"><b>Other Lifelines:</b></span> While land tele-phone service was not operational, new wireless telecommunication towers were erected within days of the earthquake, and communica-tions were fully restored relatively rapidly after that.<br />
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Electricity to the Muzaffarabad area is supplied from Mangla Dam and from a local 30 megawatt Jhangra hydroelectric power plant. Power loss in Muzaffarabad was due to fallen transformers and broken lines. Electricity was fully restored to most of the city in five to six days. Main transmission towers fared very well, with no damage to the towers even in the area of intense shaking. In one case, how-ever, a landslide damaged the transmission line near Balakot. Heating is provided from either electricity or LPG. There are no natural gas supply lines to Muzaffarabad.<br />
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<span style="color: #990000;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>Seismic Planning Provisions and Building Codes</b></span></span></div>
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Even though Pakistan has designated seismic zones, the area that suffered in the earthquake was either not classified or was deemed to be Zone 2 (equivalent to UBC Zone 2: low to moderate risk). The major cities of Peshawar (Zone 2), Islamabad (Zone 2), Karachi (Zone 2) and Quetta (Zone 4) had been classified, but not in a way that agrees with those given in Appendix III of Chapter 16 of the 1997 UBC, where Islamabad, Peshawar, and Karachi are all classified as Zone 4. Seismic hazard is not given a great deal of attention in ur-ban planning and policy decisions, and seismic design does not appear to be high priority, except for major or high profile projects.<br />
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In meetings with public officials, it became apparent that there was no code enforcement in the region. It appears that most practicing engineers in major urban areas use the UBC for building design. The use of ACI codes and British Standards is also common. In a meeting of the EERI team with the Prime Minister of Pakistan, it was mentioned that the development of a proper national building code with appropriate seismic design provisions had been outsourced to local consultants, and they had been given one month to produce such a document. A draft of this code document was not available for review at the time this report was written. Many people have already started reconstruction without building codes or <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2014/01/thesis-methods-for-earthquake-analysis.html" target="_blank">enforcement</a>.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #990000;"><b>Response and Recovery</b></span></span></div>
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The earthquake affected a population of approximately 3.5 million people either directly or indirectly, and the logistics of administering aid and relief efforts have been extremely daunting. In addition to the staggering numbers of deaths, the human cost includes amputees, orphans, unhygienic conditions resulting in dis-ease, and severe malnutrition. The early days of the disaster response were marked by uncoordinated efforts among a whole host of organi-zations involved in relief work. There was little information on who was doing what and little oversight. A coordinating structure was later created by the government under the Federal Relief Commission (FRC) and the ERRA (Earthquake Relief and Rehabilitation Authority) to coordinate activities with other international agencies and NGOs. </div>
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According to the World Bank, the relief work will cost $2 billion. According to another estimate, approximately 0.5 million tents, 3.5 million blankets, 60,000 tons of food, and 3,000 tons of medicine have been required.<br />
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Shelter strategy was organized around three populations: people who lived in houses in the lower elevations, people living in higher elevations who could come to the lower elevations, and people living in inaccessible snowline areas (5,000-7,000 feet). People in the former two categories were provided with tented villages man-aged by some agency (Figure 10). People in the last category were not compelled to descend to the tented villages. Survivors are being taught to build transitional shelter using material from retrieved debris, materials such as timber and hay in addition to the corrugated gal-vanized iron (CGI) sheets provided to them.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-dwg2dCSCoxs/WIn9H9LxXdI/AAAAAAAAG4o/Oh9Q2PKc0_wChHWVwR1dp6siWu0zpgcrgCLcB/s1600/kashmir_pak_fig10%2528www.engineersdaily.com%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="The Kashmir Earthquake of October 8, 2005: Impacts in Pakistan" border="0" height="480" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-dwg2dCSCoxs/WIn9H9LxXdI/AAAAAAAAG4o/Oh9Q2PKc0_wChHWVwR1dp6siWu0zpgcrgCLcB/s640/kashmir_pak_fig10%2528www.engineersdaily.com%2529.jpg" title="The Kashmir Earthquake of October 8, 2005: Impacts in Pakistan" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Figure 10. Children in makeshift playground in front of their tent camp. White plastic sheets have been added to the tents to protect against rain.</b></span></td></tr>
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Recycling CGI sheet roofs from destroyed homes has been problematic because of people’s preference for using the retrieved material for their permanent structures later on and not for temporary structures. Outlets for provision of construction material are being devised. The government has created an incentive for people to use their own materials by giving free CGI sheets to people who use half of their own material. NGOs working in Neelum Valley noted the problem of people carrying heavy GI sheets, weighing 8-9 kg each, to higher altitudes. Alternative lightweight materials such as plastic sheets have been suggested, but their inability to carry the weight of the snow does not make them a viable alternative.</div>
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Debris clearance has been slow because much of the heavy equipment has been tied up in road clearance and repair. Other sensi-tivities regarding debris removal include bodies and people’s posses-sions still buried under the rubble and an unwillingness to part with potentially useful scrap. </div>
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Dumping of rubble collected from the city into valleys and gorges has also been a problem, as people are putting their lives at risk by attempting to retrieve rebars with sledge hammers and bare hands. Debris from chemical warehouses, hospitals, and pesticide storage areas is a significant cause of environmental concern. Currently, the Pakistan Government estimates 20-30% of debris is yet to be removed.</div>
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<br />
About 67% of the educational insti-tutions in the affected area were destroyed. The cost of rebuilding schools in the affected areas is estimated at about $614 million. Many students and teachers have been displaced, and some migrated as far away as Islamabad. Students, parents, and teachers want the<br />
schools to reopen, but few schools in affected areas are functional. Some tent schools have been opened, and gradually life is returning to normal. Trauma counseling for the students will be necessary for quite some time.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br />
The earthquake destroyed 782 health institutions, so the area was nearly devoid of any type of health facility after the earthquake. Despite the base and field hospitals that worked around the clock, it was difficult to get the right kind of medical teams and equipment to the affected areas due to the difficult terrain. The earthquake also badly affected maternal health because most traditional birth attendants either died or moved to safer places. Pregnant women will not get needed pre- and post-natal care. Mental health programs are being administered by both the gov-ernment and international agencies. A task force of psychiatrists has been formed by the government that is funded at $5 million to administer treatment for post-traumatic stress.<br />
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Managing the displaced populations in the shelter camps has proved to be a major challenge, and some people had not relocated to camps as of this writing. Prevention of disease in<br />
camps has government officials concerned. Diseases such as diarrhea, respiratory infection, and scabies in crowded tent settlements have sprung up in the weeks following the earthquake. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Instructions on hygiene are being published to create awareness among the people in relief camps. Because the population is not used to living in such an environment, social and cultural issues are creating difficulties. According to one relief worker, issues of modesty com-pel many women to wait until dark to use the communal toilet facilities.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br />
A long-term project for reconstruction and rehabilitation is set to begin by mid-February (the 18th week follow-ing the disaster). It is estimated that approximately 400,000 houses will be reconstructed by the govern-ment. Numerous groups and indiv-iduals are presenting ideas on <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2014/02/book-earthquake-resistant-buildings-by-MYHBangash.html" target="_blank">earthquake-resistant construction</a>, but they are apparently not being coordinated properly at the present time. Organizations interested in constructing houses will have to follow the standards and proce-dures set forth and coordinated by the Earthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Authority (ERRA), when those become available.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br />
According to a World Bank esti-mate, $3.5 billion will be needed for reconstruction and rehabilitation.<br />
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #990000;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>References</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br />
Center for the Observation and Modeling of Earthquakes and Tectonics (COMET), 2005. Locating the Kashmir Fault, http://comet.nerc.ac.uk/news_kashmir.html</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br />
Durrani, A.J., Elnashai, A.S., Hash-ash, Y.M.A., and Masud, A., 2005. The Kashmir Earthquake of October 8, 2005, A Quick Look Report, Mid-America Earthquake Center, Univer-sity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br />
Hussain, A., 2005. Geology and tectonics of northern Pakistan with respect to October 8, 2005, earth-quake, presented at Earthquake Rehabilitation Conference, Seismology, Structures and Codes, Novem-ber 18-19, 2005, Islamabad.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br />
Ilyas, M., 2005. E-mail communica-tion with M. Wieland, Chairman of the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) Committee on Seismic Aspects of Dam Design.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Seeber, L., and Armbruster, J.G.,1979. Seismicity of the Hazara arc in northern Pakistan: Decollement vs. basement faulting, in A. Farah and K. A. DeJong, eds., Geodynam-ics of Pakistan, Geological Survey of Pakistan, 131-142.</div>

The Kashmir Earthquake of October 8, 2005: Impacts in Pakistan

Introduction On October 8, 2005, at 8:50 a.m. lo-cal time, a magnitude Mw = 7.6 earthquake struck the Himalayan region of northern Paki...

Water Content Analysis of Hardened Concrete

<div style="text-align: justify;">
Analyses of hardened concrete for the original water content of the fresh <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2011/02/concrete-admixtures.html" target="_blank">concrete</a>, in order to calculate water-cement ratio (w/c), are often requested because w/c is the best single measure of potential concrete strength. However, there has not been any chemical method developed that provides reasonable accuracy unless the original concrete components are available as standards. If one considers what water is present originally and what becomes of it, the difficulty of the analysis<br />becomes clear:<br /> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2011/02/properties-of-ordinary-portland-cement.html" target="_blank">concrete</a> mix contains sufficient water to render the aggregate “saturated surface-dry,” plus “free water.” Only the latter is the “w” of the w/c term. After casting:</div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-gepiDptd0IQ/WE6iZd_wtZI/AAAAAAAAG2M/boeQrQSWYSIIKbh_wTovAIZD8ZkrEc-zwCLcB/s1600/Untitled-106.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Water Content Analysis of Hardened Concrete" border="0" height="228" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-gepiDptd0IQ/WE6iZd_wtZI/AAAAAAAAG2M/boeQrQSWYSIIKbh_wTovAIZD8ZkrEc-zwCLcB/s640/Untitled-106.jpg" title="Water Content Analysis of Hardened Concrete" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Image: precast.org</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
• For most <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2016/04/concrete-mixed-proportioning-methods.html" target="_blank">mixes</a>, about half of the water evaporates, leaving holes of various sizes and shapes, some of which are connected to each other.<br />• Some of the water becomes loosely bound to the calcium silicates produced by the cement hydration.<br />• Some of the water becomes a component of crystalline compounds such as gypsum, ettringite, and calcium hydroxide.<br />• The crystalline water will not be driven off until the concrete is sufficiently heated, for example, to over 500°C (calcium hydroxide).<br />• Voids will also be present in the concrete due to incomplete compaction and to air-entrainment. Even in very good quality concrete, at least 1% entrapped voids is assumed in <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2016/04/concrete-mixed-proportioning-methods.html" target="_blank">mix design</a>. Concrete having 2 to 5% entrapped voids and 3 to 6% entrained air voids is not unusual. Free water did not occupy such voids when the concrete was placed.<br />• Some of the hydrate compounds, especially near surfaces, but to substantial depths in an old concrete structure, react with carbon dioxide in the air to convert the hydrates to carbonates. Thus calcium hydroxide converts to calcium carbonate within a few minutes at the concrete surface and even completely so over years or decades, depending upon the porosity of the concrete.<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The water liberated may evaporate from the concrete. No significant voids are produced (the reaction<br />may involve a small volume change of the solids).</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Therefore, published methods that determine original water content by resaturating the concrete with water or other liquid and by heating to drive off free and combined water, do not properly account for aggregate water, carbonation, and compaction voids, among the major sources of error.<br /> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Experienced petrographers can estimate original water-cement ratio, at least between w/c values of about 0.35 to 0.75, using such optical and physical features as color, crystal size, hardness, and porosity. Such values are usually significantly more accurate than those determined chemically. Exceptions may occur if the original aggregate is available to determine the amount of water required to produce a saturated surface-dry condition and, if correction is made for compaction voids as estimated from petrographic measurements, such as by using the linear traverse procedure of ASTM C457.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /><span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>Procedure for Water Content of the As-Is Hardened Concrete</b></span></span><br /> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The free water content of hardened concrete may be determined by drying in a vacuum, by desiccation, or by heating to 110°C. The total water content is usually determined by heating to 600°C, which dehydrates most calcium silicate hydrates and calcium hydroxide, the major crystalline hydration product of <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2016/04/characteristics-and-types-of-cement.html" target="_blank">portland cement</a>. Some calcium silicate hydrates may not be dehydrated at this temperature. Ignition to 950°C will cause loss of carbon dioxide from carbonates and must be corrected for by determining carbon dioxide.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br />Sulfide sulfur will interfere by decreasing the ignition loss due to oxidation to sulfate. Sulfate determinations before and after ignition will provide a correction. Calculate sulfate in each determination as SO3 and add the difference to the loss percentage.<br /> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #cc0000;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Procedure for Water Content of Original Concrete Mix</span></b></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
 </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Determination of the free water content of the original <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2016/11/sulfate-and-sulfide-analyses-concrete.html" target="_blank">concrete</a> mix, as based on analyses of the hardened concrete, is generally unadvisable. A petrographic estimate is often useful, especially because it is recognized as an estimate whereas a chemically determined value is often assumed, falsely in most cases, to be accurate.</div>

Water Content Analysis of Hardened Concrete

Analyses of hardened concrete for the original water content of the fresh concrete , in order to calculate water-cement ratio (w/c), are of...

Book - Basic Civil Engineering by S.S. Bhavikatti

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This particular book with title “Basic Civil Engineering” covers all the basic definitions, terminologies and everything related to civil engineering. The book is written in <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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very simple English and is very handy for students to learn civil engineering.</div>
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 </div>
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<h2 style="text-align: left;">
</h2>
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
Title of the Book</h2>
Basic Civil Engineering<br />
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
Author</h2>
S.S. Bhavikatti<br />
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
Contents</h2>
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
UNIT - I: CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1–70</h2>
1 TRADITIONAL MATERIALS 3–32<br />
<br />
2 MORTARS 33–38<br />
<br />
3 CONCRETE 39–54<br />
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4 METALS AS BUILDING MATERIALS 55–58<br />
<br />
5 MISCELLANEOUS BUILDING MATERIALS 59–69<br />
<br />
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
UNIT - II: BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 71–136</h2>
6 BUILDING PLANNING 73–81<br />
<br />
7 FOUNDATIONS 82–91<br />
<br />
8 SUPER STRUCTURES 92–127<br />
<br />
9 DAMPNESS AND ITS PREVENTION 128–132<br />
<br />
10 COST EFFECTIVE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES 133–135<br />
<br />
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
UNIT - III: SURVEYING 137–236</h2>
11 INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING 139–148<br />
<br />
12 LINEAR MEASUREMENTS AND CHAIN SURVEYING 149–175<br />
<br />
13 COMPASS SURVEYING 176–194<br />
<br />
14 PLANE TABLE SURVEYING 195–208<br />
<br />
15 LEVEL AND LEVELLING 209–225<br />
<br />
16 MODERN TOOLS OF SURVEYING 226–236<br />
<br />
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
UNIT - IV: MAPPING AND SENSING 237–268</h2>
17 MAPPING AND CONTOURING 239–246<br />
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18 Drawing Contours   246<br />
<br />
19 REMOTE SENSING AND ITS APPLICATIONS 266–268<br />
<br />
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
UNIT - V: DISASTER RESISTANT BUILDING 269–287</h2>
20 DISASTER RESISTANT BUILDINGS 271–281<br />
<br />
21 DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING 282–285<br />
<br />
22 INDIAN STANDARD CODES 286–287<br />
<br />
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Book - Basic Civil Engineering by S.S. Bhavikatti

This particular book with title “Basic Civil Engineering” covers all the basic definitions, terminologies and everything related to ci...

Free download: The Power of Habit - 7 Steps to Successful Habits

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Free download: The Power of Habit - 7 Steps to Successful Habits

95 percent of everything you think, feel, do, and achieve is the result of a habit. You will learn: How to think more effectively, ma...

Project Organization Structures

<div style="text-align: justify;">
To <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2011/03/project-management-guidelines.html" target="_blank">manage</a> a project, a company or authority has to set up a project organization, which can supply<br />the resources for the project and service it during its life cycle.<br />There are three main types of project organizations:<br />1 Functional;<br />2 Matrix;<br />3 Project or task force.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
 </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Figure 1 shows a diagrammatic representation of the three basic <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2011/03/project-management-artifacts.html" target="_blank">project management</a> organizations, Functional, Project (or Task Force) and 
Matrix. </div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-6lt2f7Yt4Xw/WEBGomQ9DOI/AAAAAAAAG1I/GS-3oqkMuBo4gX7V0wd6WCG_lEeE0vKVQCLcB/s1600/engineersdaily_organisation.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="354" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-6lt2f7Yt4Xw/WEBGomQ9DOI/AAAAAAAAG1I/GS-3oqkMuBo4gX7V0wd6WCG_lEeE0vKVQCLcB/s640/engineersdaily_organisation.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">Figure 1 Types of organization</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /><span style="color: #cc0000;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Functional organization</span></b></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #cc0000;"><b><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></b></span><br />This type of organization consists of specialist or functional departments each with their own departmental <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2011/03/project-management-methodology.html" target="_blank">manager</a> responsible to one or more directors. Such an organization is ideal for routine operations where there is little variation of the end product. Functional organizations are usually found where items are mass produced, whether they are motor cars or sausages. Each department is expert at its function and the interrelationship between them is well established.<br /> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In this sense a functional organization is not a project-type organization at all and is only included because when small, individual, one-off projects have to be carried out, they may be given to a particular department to manage. For projects of any reasonable size or complexity, it will be necessary to set up one of the other two types of organizations.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #cc0000;"><b><br />Matrix organization</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br />This is probably the most common type of project organization, since it utilizes an existing functional organization to provide the human resources without disrupting the day-to-day operation of the department. The personnel allocated to a particular project are responsible to a project manager for meeting the three basic project criteria, time, cost and quality.<br /> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The departmental manager is, however, still responsible for their ‘pay and rations’ and their compliance with the department’s standards and procedures, including technical competence and conformity to company quality standards.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br />The members of this project team will still be working at their desks in their department, but will be booking their time to the project. Where the project does not warrant a full-time contribution, only those hours actually expended on the <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2011/03/introduction-to-project-management.html" target="_blank">project</a> will be allocated to it.<br /> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The advantages of a matrix organization are:<br />1 Resources are employed efficiently, since staff can switch to different projects if held up on any one of them;<br />2 The expertize built up by the department is utilized and the latest state-ofthe- art techniques are immediately incorporated;<br />3 Special facilities do not have to be provided and disrupting staff movements are avoided;<br />4 The career prospects of team members are left intact;<br />5 The organization can respond quickly to changes of scope;<br />6 The <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2011/10/role-of-project-manager.html" target="_blank">project manager</a> does not have to concern himself with staff problems.<br /> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The disadvantages are:<br />1 There may be a conflict of priorities between different projects;<br />2 There may be split loyalties between the project manager and the departmental manager due to the dual reporting requirements;<br />3 Communications between team members can be affected if the locations of the departments are far apart;<br />4 Executive management may have to spend more time to ensure a fair balance of power between the project manager and the department manager.<br /><br />All the above problems can, however, be resolved if there is a good working relationship between the project manager and the department heads. At times both sides may have to compromize in the interests of the organization as a whole.<br /> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>Project organization (task force)</b></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br />From a project manager’s point of view this is the ideal type of project organization, since with such a set up he has complete control over every aspect of the project. The project team will usually be located in one area which can be a room for a small project or a complete building for a very large one.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br />Lines of communication are short and the interaction of the disciplines reduces the risk of errors and misunderstandings. Not only are the planning and technical functions part of the team but also the project cost control and project accounting staff. This places an enormous burden and responsibility on the project manager, who will have to delegate much of the day-to-day management to special project coordinators whose prime function is to ensure a good communication flow and timely receipt of reports and feedback information from external sources.<br /> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
On large projects with budgets often greater than £0.5 billion, the project manager’s responsibilities are akin to those of a <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2011/03/history-of-project-management.html" target="_blank">managing</a> director of a medium-size company. Not only is he concerned with the technical and commercial aspects of the project, but has also to deal with the staff, financial and political issues, which are often more difficult to delegate.<br /><br />There is no doubt that for large projects a task force type of project organization is essential, but as with so many areas of business, the key to success lies with the personality of the project manager and his ability to inspire the project team to regard themselves as personal stakeholders in the project.<br /> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
One of the main differences between the two true project organizations (matrix and task force) and the functional organization is the method of financial accounting. For the project manager to retain proper cost control during the life of the project, it is vital that a system of project accounting is instituted, whereby all incomes and expenditures, including a previously agreed overhead allocation and profit margin, are booked to the project as if it were a separate self-standing organization. The only possible exceptions are certain corporate financial transactions such as interest payments on loans taken out by the host <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2011/10/functions-and-key-concepts-of-project.html" target="_blank">organization</a> and interest receipts on deposits from a positive cash flow.</div>

Project Organization Structures

To manage a project, a company or authority has to set up a project organization, which can supply the resources for the project and servi...

Lattice Boom Crawler Cranes

<div style="text-align: justify;">
Lattice boom crawler cranes are very common on most types of construction projects. They are versatile in that many attachments to perform many different types of work such as draglines and clamshells for <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2016/12/consideration-of-tracked-or-tired-machinery-in-excavating-earthmoving.html" target="_blank">excavation</a>, pile drivers, dynamic compactors, ‘‘wrecking’’ balls for demolition, augers for drilling holes, and magnets for moving metal objects can be easily attached and used. There are several boom configurations that can be used.</div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-j08gKmtcR-I/WEBDZngR0nI/AAAAAAAAG08/PLA0j4v1HuEKj31MJ_eN3MHApryUKlYnACLcB/s1600/lattice_boom_crane_engineersdaily.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Parts of a lattice boom crane." border="0" height="402" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-j08gKmtcR-I/WEBDZngR0nI/AAAAAAAAG08/PLA0j4v1HuEKj31MJ_eN3MHApryUKlYnACLcB/s640/lattice_boom_crane_engineersdaily.png" title="Parts of a lattice boom crane." width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">Figure 1 Parts of a lattice boom crane.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
A guy derrick crane uses a back boom as a derrick that can be anchored temporarily to other structures to counterweight the load as it is lifted and placed. The lifting cable comes from the back of the cab of the crane, over the derrick boom and then through the lifting boom to the load, thus transferring the compressive force of the load to the derrick. This crane can boost capacity 800% over a basic crawler crane.<br /> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
A crawler tower crane is less costly than a true tower crane. The main boom is vertical with a luffing boom attachment. The compressive load is transferred to the crane cab and counterweights down this vertical boom. Maximum boom and jib combination are approximately 4800.<br /> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The sky horse configuration is similar to the guy derrick, except the back boom is shorter than the lifting boom. It is not temporarily secured during the lift. This crane can approximately triple the capacity of a standard crane.<br /> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
A ringer lift attachment at the base of a crawler crane is used for heavy lifting. The ring helps to stabilize the crane to the lifting surface. The crane can have a sky horse boom configuration with a luffing jib attachment. Typically a great amount of counterweight is attached for balance. The counterweight is supported on the structural ring. Ringer lift cranes can lift and swing mega-heavy loads.<br /> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Figure 1 is adapted from an illustration in the <i>Mobile Crane Manual</i> published by the Construction Safety Association of Ontario and shows the basic parts of a lattice boom crane. Because of the crawler tracks and the instability caused by the moment created at the end of the boom by the load, these cranes move slowly and must travel on a level stable surface. If necessary, the <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2014/01/construction-equipment-management-for.html" target="_blank">crane</a> can build its own road as it moves forward. This portable surface must be level and stable enough to support the crane’s weight and also the weight of its load. When planning a lift, how and where the crane travels to its lifting position with its load must be planned. Provision for avoiding obstacles and having a stable travel surface must be made.</div>

Lattice Boom Crawler Cranes

Lattice boom crawler cranes are very common on most types of construction projects. They are versatile in that many attachments to perform ...

Consideration of Tracked or Tired Machinery in Excavating and Earthmoving

<div style="text-align: justify;">
Whether the working equipment moves on tracks or tires has a major influence on productivity (how much dirt can be moved or <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2011/04/types-of-excavation.html" target="_blank">excavated</a> in a certain amount of time or how fast material can be transported). Both types of movements offer advantages and disadvantages based on working and surface conditions.<br />
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Usable force available to perform work depends on the coefficient of traction of the work surface and the weight (lbs) carried by the running gear or wheels. The amount of tractive force necessary to push or pull a load is important for sizing the right machine. Manufacturers provide rimpull or drawbar pull tables for most of their equipment models showing tractive power that can be delivered at specified operating speeds. This information can be used to verify a machine’s ability or capacity to work in specified job conditions (primarily rolling or surface resistance and grade resistance) and achieve the desired production.</div>
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Coefficients of traction vary based upon the travel surface. They measure the degree of traction between the wheel or track and travel surface. Slick surfaces have lower coefficients of traction than rougher surfaces (assuming both surfaces are relatively level and flat). Coefficients of traction for rubber-tired vehicles range from 0.90 for a concrete surface, 0.20 for dry sand to 0.12 for ice. Typically, coefficients of traction tables are available in equipment performance handbooks. The better the traction generated by the piece of equipment on the travel surface, the shorter the travel time and less wear and tear on the piece of equipment. Simply stated, maximum tractive effort (drawbar or rimpull in pounds) equals the equipment weight multiplied by the coefficient of traction of the travel or work surface.</div>
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This formula calculates the maximum amount of force that can be generated for a load on a surface. Excess tractive effort generated by the <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2014/06/renting-versus-purchasing-construction-equipment.html" target="_blank">equipment</a> will cause the tires or tracks to spin. Overloading will cause this result. The machine’s engine provides the power to overcome the resistances and move the machine. The engine must be sized or matched to meet the tractive effort required to the capabilities of the machine. The model selected would be appropriate if it can generate enough tractive effort to perform the specific task without overburdening the machine.</div>
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Tracked equipment is designed for work activities requiring high tractive effort (drawbar) or the ability to move and remain stable on uneven or unstable surfaces. Tasks such as pushing over trees, removing tree stumps, or removing broken concrete flatwork require a very high pushing force. The tracked bulldozer is ideal for this type of work. Tractive effort results from the track cleats or grousers gripping the ground to create force necessary to push or pull dirt, material, or any other piece of equipment. Tracked equipment is most efficient when used for short travel distances less than 500 ft. Figure 1 shows a typical piece of heavy <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2011/01/causes-of-disputes-in-construction.html" target="_blank">construction</a> equipment running on tracks. Most loaders on construction sites run on tires.</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-YUrc1zHl6Gc/WEAyluW4QGI/AAAAAAAAG0o/K-4v96y7IvM2A_SN7SqQy6jFpwkkz_aLACLcB/s1600/Caterpillar_track_loader_engineersdaily.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Consideration of Tracked or Tired Machinery in Excavating and Earthmoving" border="0" height="243" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-YUrc1zHl6Gc/WEAyluW4QGI/AAAAAAAAG0o/K-4v96y7IvM2A_SN7SqQy6jFpwkkz_aLACLcB/s400/Caterpillar_track_loader_engineersdaily.jpg" title="Consideration of Tracked or Tired Machinery in Excavating and Earthmoving" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">Figure 1 Tracked loader at work</span></td></tr>
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Tracks can be metal or rubber. Metal tracks are more durable and can withstand much greater abuse than rubber tracks. Heavy-duty dirt moving equipment will almost always run on metal tracks. Rubber tracks are lighter and best for smaller equipment working in organic matter and surfaces requiring minimal disturbance. Tracks come in varying widths and thicknesses. The width of the track shoe determines the ground pressure. The wider the track the more surface area covered and the wider the load distribution. Wider track shoes have greater flotation on the work surface. The heavier the track, the more power required to make it move. Narrow track shoes are better for harsh irregular hard work surfaces. Shoes are typically designed with single or double grousers. Single grouser shoes are better for developing traction and double grouser shoes typically are less damaging to travel or work surfaces.</div>
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It should be noted that tracked <a href="http://www.engineersdaily.com/2014/06/renting-versus-purchasing-construction-equipment.html" target="_blank">equipment</a> typically marks or gouges the surface on which it is operating. Skid-steer types of equipment (bulldozers and loaders) will gouge the surface with the track cleats when they turn. To avoid ‘‘customizing’’ a parking lot surface, plywood can be laid, on which the tracked equipment can maneuver, and rubber or padded tracks or use a tired piece of equipment could be used. A hot asphalt surface typically will mark or rip with tires or tracks unless the surface is protected.</div>
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Tired equipment is more mobile and maneuverable than tracked equipment. Machines can achieve greater speed and therefore are better for hauling. However, pulling ability is reduced to reach a higher speed. Tired equipment is more efficient than tracked equipment when the distance is greater than 500 ft. The tire diameter and width, tread design, and inflation pressure influence the ability to roll. The larger the tire, the more power required to make it roll. Tread and track design influence the ability to grip the travel surface. A more pronounced deeper tread grips better. The inflation pressure also influences how much resistance the tire has on the travel surface. The less the inflation pressure, the greater the surface area covered by the tire, the harder it is to roll and more buoyant the equipment.</div>
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Rolling resistance is the resistance of a level surface to a uniform velocity motion across it. It is the force required to shear through or over a surface and is also termed wheel resistance (e.g., a truck tire developing friction on the road surface as it turns). Rolling resistance has two components: surface resistance and penetration resistance.</div>
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Surface resistance results from the equipment trying to rollover the travel surface material. Penetration resistance results from the equipment tires sinking into the surface. Obviously, this resistance will vary greatly with the type and condition of the surface over which the equipment is moving. Simply put, soft surfaces have higher resistance than hard surfaces.</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-BgjKU5-t9dg/WEAzNfkF4WI/AAAAAAAAG0s/kGK7woItaGYlz6pS_Q3ELBkmFF3Vg9P5gCLcB/s1600/engineersdaily.com_rolling_resistances.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img alt="Consideration of Tracked or Tired Machinery in Excavating and Earthmoving" border="0" height="269" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-BgjKU5-t9dg/WEAzNfkF4WI/AAAAAAAAG0s/kGK7woItaGYlz6pS_Q3ELBkmFF3Vg9P5gCLcB/s400/engineersdaily.com_rolling_resistances.png" title="Consideration of Tracked or Tired Machinery in Excavating and Earthmoving" width="400" /></a></div>
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On a hard surface, a highly inflated tire has less rolling resistance than a less inflated tire, primarily because of less tire surface area coming in contact with the road surface. A highly inflated tire has greater rolling resistance in sand than a less inflated tire because it will sink deeper into the rolling surface. The rolling resistances shown in Table 1 are adapted from John Schaufelberger’s book, <i>Construction Equipment Management</i>. The table shows several surfaces and their rolling resistances. Rolling resistance is expressed in pounds of resistance per ton of vehicle or equipment weight. The rolling resistance is greater for a loaded piece of equipment than when it is unloaded. Use the loaded weight of the equipment (equipment including fuel and lubricants plus load) in tons when calculating resistance.</div>
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When there is no real penetration into the travel or operating surface, the rolling resistance is about 40 lbs/ton. The weight of the equipment should include the load. When a tire sinks in the mud until it is stable, the rolling resistance as it tries to climb out of the rut increases about 30 lbs/ton (2000 lbs) for each inch of penetration.<br />
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><b>Example</b></span><br />
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92,000 lbs/2000 lbs/ton = 46 tons.</div>
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Rolling resistance = 46 tons (50 lbs/ton) = 2300 lbs.</div>
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Penetration resistance = 200(46 tons) (30 lbs/ton/inch) = 2760 lbs.</div>
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Total tractive effort = 2300 lbs + 2760 lbs = 5060 lbs.</div>
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With this number, the equipment manager can refer to the manufacturer’s performance specs to select a piece of equipment that can generate enough power (in this case rimpull) to overcome this resistance.<br />
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Grade resistance is the force-opposing movement of a vehicle up a frictionless slope (does not include rolling resistance). The effort required to move a vehicle up a sloping surface increases approximately in proportion to the slope of the surface. The effort required to move a vehicle down a sloping surface decreases approximately in proportion to the slope of the surface. For slopes less than 10%, the effect of grade increases for a plus slope and decreases for a minus slope. The required tractive effort increases or decreases 20 lbs per gross ton of weight for each 1% of grade.</div>

Consideration of Tracked or Tired Machinery in Excavating and Earthmoving

Whether the working equipment moves on tracks or tires has a major influence on productivity (how much dirt can be moved or excavated in a...

Role of the Planning Engineer

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The estimating team will consider construction methods and employ <a href="https://www.blogger.com/reducing%20the%20estimate%20when%20methods%20can%20be%20adopted%20which%20reduce%20individual%20and%20overall%20durations.%20The%20team%20must,%20however,%20look%20for%20the%20solution,%20which%20reflects%20the%20%E2%80%98true%E2%80%99%20cost%20of%20construction.The%20role%20of%20the%20planning%20engineer%20is%20wider%20than%20just%20producing%20a%20programme.%20His%20input%20to%20a%20tender%20can%20also%20include:%201.%20Producing%20site%20layout%20drawings,%20which%20are%20used%20to%20locate%20temporary%20facilitates,%20such%20as%20concrete%20batching%20plant,%20cranage,%20access%20routes,%20restrictions,%20areas%20for%20accommodation%20and%20storage,%20location%20of%20services,%20overhead%20service,%20temporary%20spoil%20heaps,%20and%20areas%20which%20will%20need%20reinstatement.%202.%20Examining%20the%20most%20suitable%20methods%20in%20relation%20to%20the%20design%20and%20the%20temporary%20works%20required.%203.%20Preparing%20method%20statements%20not%20only%20for%20pricing%20purposes%20but%20also%20for%20submission%20to%20clients%20or%20consultants%20when%20requested.%204.%20Producing%20cashflow%20forecast%20charts%20for%20management%20and%20clients%20who%20need%20them.%205.%20Providing%20staff%20structure%20and%20resource%20histograms%20for%20general%20labour,%20production%20labour%20and%20plant.%20The%20planning%20engineer%20will%20often%20have%20a%20better%20understanding%20of%20current%20site%20practice%20and%20will%20be%20better%20placed%20to%20collect%20data%20from%20monitoring%20exercises%20on%20site.%20His%20experience%20of%20completed%20work%20will%20be%20important%20especially%20where%20the%20overall%20duration%20of%20a%20project%20could%20be%20reduced.%20Shorter%20contract%20periods%20can%20have%20a%20substantial%20effect%20on%20the%20cost%20of%20preliminaries%20where%20time-related%20costs%20(mainly%20staff,%20site%20accommodation,%20cranage%20and%20scaffolding)%20account%20for%20as%20much%20as%2012%E2%80%9320%%20of%20a%20tender%20figure." target="_blank">planning</a> techniques to:<br />
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1. Highlight any critical or unusual activities.<br />
2. Examine alternative ways of tackling the work.<br />
3. Calculate optimum durations for temporary works and plant.<br />
4. Reconcile the labour costs in the estimate with a programme showing resources.<br />
5. Determine the general items and facilities priced in the preliminaries section of the bill.<br />
6. Check whether the time for completion is acceptable.<br />
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The effort needed will depend on the size and complexity of the project, the proposed use of heavy plant and the design of major temporary works. Estimating for civil engineering work in particular is dependent on an examination of alternative methods and pre-tender programmes. A civil engineering estimator usually produces a resourced programme to price major aspects of the work operationally. </div>
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Pre-tender programmes are prepared by either the estimator or planning engineer, or more likely by working together.The choice depends on company policy, size of project and type of work. The planning engineer’s contribution can be seen as producing an appraisal of labour and plant resources and general items – in other words the estimator expresses his solutions in terms of cash, the programmer deals with time. The aim is to reconcile one with the other.</div>
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In a competitive market it is important to look for ways to construct the project more economically. Applying planning techniques can have opposite consequences. Increasing the value of the tender when problems are identified and reducing the estimate when methods can be adopted which reduce individual and overall durations. The team must, however, look for the solution, which reflects the ‘true’ cost of construction.The role of the planning engineer is wider than just producing a programme. His input to a tender can also include:</div>
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1. Producing site layout drawings, which are used to locate temporary facilitates, such as concrete batching plant, cranage, access routes, restrictions, areas for accommodation and storage, location of services, overhead service, temporary spoil heaps, and areas which will need reinstatement.<br />
2. Examining the most suitable methods in relation to the design and the temporary works required.<br />
3. Preparing method statements not only for pricing purposes but also for submission to clients or consultants when requested.<br />
4. Producing cashflow forecast charts for management and clients who need them.<br />
5. Providing staff structure and resource histograms for general labour, production labour and plant.<br />
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The planning engineer will often have a better understanding of current site practice and will be better placed to collect data from monitoring exercises on site. His experience of completed work will be important especially where the overall duration of a project could be reduced. Shorter contract periods can have a substantial effect on the cost of preliminaries where time-related costs (mainly staff, site accommodation, cranage and scaffolding) account for as much as 12–20% of a tender figure.</div>

Role of the Planning Engineer

The estimating team will consider construction methods and employ planning techniques to: 1. Highlight any critical or unusual activiti...

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